The Good Berry: A Wild Rice Domestication TL

[PeterEzgo]

Hoshalga, eh?
If it's built on the flat, it's going to be totally dwarfed by the 'mountain' that's 233m or 764' tall.

If it's built on top of the mountain, how easy is it going to be to get the necessary fill in place, and how obvious will the artificiality be?
Locals: Oooh, we've got the tallest wajiw, evah, totes.
Visitor: Meh, you just built your palace on an existing mountain, whoopee dingy.

I imagine arguing about who has the biggest wajiw is a matter of nationalist pride. Do you measure from the base? Is girth, I mean volume, important? What % of it has to be artificial? etc. Everyone would want their wajiw to be the biggest and would use whatever definition made it so. I also imagine that men would take a special interest in such activities.

I believe South Park made a documentary about such arguments:

 

[Dathi THorfinnsson]

Oh, and a trivial correction, Québec's code is QC, not QB

 

[PeterEzgo]

Chapter 23: The Beautiful River​

The Ohiyo River Valley, called the Ohiyoong [Ohio and Western Pennsylvania along the Ohio] in Anishinaabe, was one of the most fertile and densely populated regions outside of the Mishigami during the classical period. It was one of the first places in Eastern Minisia outside of the Mishigami to adopt an agricultural and sedentary lifestyle. As maize and manoomin spread, the Ohiyoong became as highly populated and important as any region of the Mishigami.

During the classical period, the Ohiyoong was filled with city-states and petty kingdoms vying for control. The two most important and powerful of these states were Chalakatha [Chillicothe, OH] and Nepernine [Cincinnati, OH]. At times, Cuyahoga [Cleveland, OH], who we have already discussed, also attempted to build an empire. None of them were able to do so for more than a generation or so.

The city of Chalakatha did manage to build two things that lasted centuries: the Horned Serpent Mound (Mishi-Ginebig Wajiw) and the Great Road (Mishi Miikana). The Horned Serpent Mound was built and modified over decades and centuries. The Great Road was built in less than a decade. Its story goes something like this:

Sometime between 1 CE and 200 CE, the Sagamos of Chalakatha, named Skenandoa, ascended to the throne. He was a military genius. Over the course of ten years of fighting, he defeated the other city-states of the Ohiyo valley and forced them to send tribute to Chilakatha. Once his realm was at peace, Skenandoa decided to build a road to unite his empire. Each city that sent him tribute was forced to provide labor to build the road. They would each build the sections of the Great Road closest to their settlements.

The Great Road cut across the landscape and crossed various rivers at natural fords. It also utilized bridges specially designed and built by the master architects of Chalakatha. The Great Road was paved with stone between major cities but paved with logs in the quieter stretches. It ran from Ishpesiwa [Akron, OH] to Nepernine [Cincinnati, OH].

Not long after Skenandoa’s death, his empire collapsed. The Great Road continued to be used. Even though they were no longer required to, those cities that had formerly been under his control continued to maintain the road because it had proven such a boom for trade.

Let’s discuss each of the major city-states of the Ohiyoong in turn:

Ohiyoong, with north at the top this time​

Name: Shanoppin

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Bine (“Turkey”)

Type: City-State

Shanoppin [Pittsburgh, PN] lies at the confluence of three rivers: the Ohiyo, Allegheny, and Monongahela. It is the eastern most city of the Ohiyoong and has long been the most culturally distinct. It had a reputation for being “half-barbarian” and filled with hill people. It was rare that it was ever brought under the control of an outside power and it had an independent streak. If you asked its inhabitants, they would probably say they were not part of the Ohiyoong.



Name: Ishpesiwa (“High Ground”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Gekek (“Hawk”)

Type: City-State

Ishpesiwa [Akron, OH] is the northernmost city of the Ohiyoong. It is often counted with the cities of Lake Wabishigami [Lake Eire]. In truth, it had a foot in both camps. As often as not it was a tributary of the city of Cuyahoga [Cleveland, OH]. I have chosen to count it as part of the Ohiyoong mostly because it is the head of the Mishi Miikana or Great Road.

Its name means high ground, a common name for a city. It grew around the falls of the Cuyahoga River and the resulting portage that was created.



Name: Chalakatha (“Principal Town”)

Population: Large

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Waawaashkeshi (“deer”)

Type: City-State and sometimes Kingdom

Chalakatha [Chillicothe, OH] was the most powerful city of the Ohiyoong. It controlled the Scioto River Valley all the way to the Ohiyo. This was one of the most fertile and productive areas of the Ohiyoong.

At various times Chalakatha was able to build a large kingdom but these attempts never led to lasting dominance. This was due in part because Chalakatha and Nepernine often undermined each other’s attempts at empire building. Instead it would be the building of the Mishi Miikana that would cement Chalakatha’s status as a great city in the Ohiyoong. As the Mishi Miikana, or Great Road, ran through Chalakatha it greatly increased the trade flowing through the city at the expense of Pikwa.



Name: Pikwa

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Waawaashkeshiweshkan (‘deer antler’)

Type: City-State

Pikwa [Columbus, OH] was the other major city of the Skenandoa River Valley, located on the north side of the valley as far away from Chalakatha as possible. After the building of the Great Road, trade moved further south to Chalakatha. As often as not, it was a tributary of Chalakatha.



Name: Msimi

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Gidagaakoons (“fawn”)

Type: City-State

Msimi [Dayton, OH] was a minor city upriver from Nepernine. It was usually a tributary of Nepernine. There were a few attempts to build a canal that connected Nepernine to Cuyahoga [Cleveland, OH] via Msimi but they always ended in disaster.



Name: Nepernine

Population: Large

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Ayaabe (“buck or male deer”)

Type: City-State and sometimes Kingdom

Nepernine [Cincinnati, OH] is located at the confluence of the Nepernine [Licking River] and Ohiyo Rivers. It was able to control the salt trade of the Ohiyoong due to the many saline springs in the area. It had a powerful riverine navy and controlled much of the trade on the Ohiyo River. It was also the terminus for the Mishi Miikana or Great Road.

Like Chalakatha, its attempts to build an empire for itself had been repeatedly frustrated. Nepernine attempted to emulate the achievement of the Mishi Miikana by building a canal from Nepernine to Cuyahoga [Cleveland, OH] but this repeatedly ended in expensive failure.



The only remaining region of the Middle West which we have yet to discuss is the Wabashaang [Indiana more or less] which is the region around the Wabash River. We will discuss the rise of the Shawnee and all that accompanies it when it happens chronologically, rather than discussing it here. Let’s get straight to discussing the city-states individually:

Wabashaang, also with north at the top​

Name: Ishpadinaa (“High Point”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Giiwosewasim (“hunting dog”)

Type: City-State and sometimes Kingdom

Ishpadinaa [Terra Haute, IN] was the largest and most powerful city of the Wabashaang. It was also the only city in the Wabashaang actually located along the Wabash. It was never able to build a lasting empire but it often had great influence on the other city-states of the region.

Ishpadinaa was often derisively referred to as Ikwekala (the woman city) because the wives and mothers of the Sagamos tended to dominate its politics. It was whispered that they controlled the nobility through the use of poison, though this has never been proven.



Name: Wapeksippu

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Waagoshiinh (“fox”)

Type: City-State

Wapeksippu [Indianapolis, IN] was located along the Wapahani (“white sands”) River, a tributary of the Wabash. The Wapahani River is not easily navigable, which limited the growth of the city but also protected it from threats (especially from Ishpadinaa). For the moment, it was a minor city-state dominated by its more powerful neighbors.



Name: Opihale

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Misko-Bineshiinh (“Cardinal”)

Type: City-State

Opihale [Louisville, KY] is located on the Ohiyo River but is often considered part of the Wabashaang, just like Kansee. It has more similarities, culturally to the Wabashaang than to the Ohiyoong or Biinjijwanong [Southern IL, eastern MO].

It controlled the falls of the Ohiyo, a series of rapids that made river navigation difficult. The city charged a toll for skilled men to steer boats through the troubled waters. The falls of the Ohiyo also encouraged merchants to stop in the city. The resulting trade helped to make the city strong.



Name: Kansee

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Zhiishiib (“Duck”)

Type: City-State

Kansee [Evansville, IN] is located on the Ohiyo River but usually considered part of Wabashaang, much like Opihale. It is on an oxbow of the Ohio River, which is where the river bends like a “U”, slowing the current. This gives the city a distinct crescent shape and encouraged trade while increasing the fertility of the land. It had a powerful riverine navy and controlled trade along a large section of the Ohiyo.



Next time, we will discuss the life of a zhimaaganish warrior. But first, a supplemental on the hero twins of Midewiwin legend.


Comments? Questions?

 

[Plateosaurus]

Name: Ishpesiwa (“High Ground”)

Its name means high ground, a common name for a city. It grew around the falls of the Cuyahoga River and the resulting portage that was created.

Are there legends where a master declares to their corrupted apprentice they have control over such cities?

 

[PeterEzgo]

Hey, so real life is impacting my schedule. I am probably not going to be able to answer questions, work on the TL, or upload updates for a little while. I'm going to go ahead and upload the supplemental that was meant for Thursday in a few minutes. It's basically done anyway; I was just going to go over it again for grammar. Beyond that, I don't know when I am going to be able to upload again. I should be back by next Monday but that is not a guarantee.

 

[PeterEzgo]

Tales from the Aadizookaan: The Hero Twins​

Manidoo knows the future. He knows the good that will happen. He knows the bad that will happen. And he takes steps to ensure the future, good and bad, will happen as it is supposed to.

One thing he did to ensure the future would enfold as it should was to create Flint and Red Horn. He did this by seducing and impregnating Giizhigo-ikwe, the sky woman.

Manidoo seduced Giizhigo-ikwe by transforming into a beautiful heron. His mournful cries attracted Giizhigo-ikwe, who asked him what was wrong. In answer, Manidoo-as-the-heron danced a mating dance. Giizhigo-ikwe came to understand that Manidoo-as-the-heron had lost his lady love. Feeling sorry for the heron, Giizhigo-ikwe lay with Manidoo-as-the-heron. In this union, the twins Flint and Red Horn were conceived.

In the womb, Flint and Red Horn were conscious. Red Horn waited patiently for his birth but Flint chafed at confines of Giizhigo-ikwe’s womb. Red Horn tried to reassure him. Giizhigo-ikwe prayed to Manidoo to keep her tumultuous children in her womb until they were ready to be born. She still believed they were the children of the heron.

As Giizhigo-ikwe’s belly swelled with pregnancy, her mother Bagidanaamowin-noodin, Breath of the Wind, became angry. Giizhigo-ikwe should have remained a virgin. When Giizhigo-ikwe told her the story of the heron, Bagidanaamowin-noodin did not believe her. “If you lay with a heron, you should be laying eggs, not swelling in the belly,” Bagidanaamowin-noodin said.

That night, as Giizhigo-ikwe slept, Bagidanaamowin-noodin opened a hole in the sky all around the bed. When Giizhigo-ikwe woke the next morning and tried to place her feet on the sky-as-floor, she fell to earth.

The fall and the impact with the earth was enough for Flint. He fashioned a sharp flint knife from the water of the womb. Then he cut his way out of his mother’s womb, killing Giizhigo-ikwe. Thus were the great heroes Flint and Red Horn born. Thus was Sky Woman killed.

Effigy pipe made to resemble Red Horn, with human heads for earrings[1]​

Flint is associated with winter, night, and death. He is the evening star. He is the one who brings chaos and destruction to the universe. He carries a flint knife with him always. Owls, a symbol of death, are his servants. He keeps a flock of them always nearby to be at his beck and call.

Red Horn is associated with summer, day, and life. He is the morning star. He is the one who brings order and stability to the universe. He wears human heads for earrings, showing his prowess in war. Falcons, a symbol of order, are his servants. He keeps a flock of them always nearby to be at his beck and call.

After they were born, Bagidanaamowin-noodin came to them. She was greatly sad due to the death of her daughter. At first, she thought the fall had killed Sky Woman, which she had not meant to do. She was overjoyed when she saw Flint and Red Horn, her grandchildren, alive and well beside the body of their mother. But when she saw that the womb was cut open from the inside, she demanded to know which of the twins had been so impatient as to kill Sky Woman rather than wait to be born.

Flint stated that Red Horn was responsible but Red Horn showed that Flint still had the knife that had done the deed. At this, Flint fled. Bagidanaamowin-noodin raged and raged but could not catch him.

Both Red Horn and Flint would go on to have many more adventures. Red Horn would marry an orphan girl, defeat giants in a game of chunkey and more. He fulfills the role of the classic strong and powerful hero, not too dissimilar to Hercules or Sampson.

Flint, in his adventures, would frequently bring death and destruction to people but he also brought rebirth and change. He is often likened to creative destruction. He fulfills the role of the naïve and destructive villain.

It should be noted that the Anishinaabe were aware that the morning star (which represents Red Horn) and the evening star (which represents Flint) are one and the same. For those unaware, the morning and evening star is the planet Venus. The twins were always associated with each other, though they were opposites in every way. We may talk of some of their stories later.

Next time, we discuss the life of a zhimaaganish warrior.

---

[1] Taken from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe...g/200px-Spiro_Big_Boy_effigy_pipe_HRoe_02.jpg

Comments? Questions?

 

[Plateosaurus]

Question: Anything affected by butterflies in Florida and the Gulf Coast?

 

[PeterEzgo]

Hey, so I'm back! Some highlights and lowlights of my week: I got to fly for only the third time in my life, I saw the film Oppenheimer (it was pretty good), I got to listen to my brother in law rant about biracial couples for a solid twenty minutes, and a puppy did NOT throw up on me. Overall, I think I would rather have stayed home. Anyways, back to the TL.

Question: Anything affected by butterflies in Florida and the Gulf Coast?

We'll discuss the Mississippi Delta region, the Gulf Coast, and Lousiana in a couple weeks. Right now, Florida is more or less the same as OTL. The only difference is an increase in trade with the southeast due to the increase population in the southeast.

The schedule for the future looks something like this:

8/28: The life of a zhimaaganish warrior

9/4: Middle Mississippi Valley area

9/7: Supplemental on gender and sexuality. (May be moved)

9/11: Boats and brown water naval warfare

9/18: Gulf Coast Region

 

[PeterEzgo]

Chapter 24: The Way of the Warrior

“I walk the warpath,”- common saying among Zhimaaganish warriors​

The zhimaaganish warrior was a central part of the society of the Mishigami and Ziibiing during the classical period. The functioning of the warrior aristocracy determined historical events and shaped history.

In generally, the position of zhimaaganish was more meritocratic than most positions in Menominee society. While most zhimaaganish were the sons of zhimaaganish, you had to have physical strength and fighting skill to be a zhimaaganish warrior. If you did not, you could not join their ranks, no matter who your father was. Conversely, if you had sufficient physical strength and fighting skill, then you could become a zhimaaganish warrior no matter who father was. This was true theoretically, at least.

A series of physical tests and mental challenges were used to evaluate anyone who wanted to become a zhimaaganish warrior. If, in the judgment of the current zhimaaganish warriors, you passed, you became a zhimaaganish. If you didn’t, you weren’t. In reality, the sons of zhimaaganish had many advantages. They were trained from an early age to pass the tests and were often treated favorably by the evaluators. It was looked down upon to pass the sons of fellow zhimaaganish who could not complete the challenges but it still happened. Such legacy children were often resented if they could not pull their weight. On the flip side, an outsider generally had to greatly outperform their peers to be accepted. If an outsider was accepted, they became not only a zhimaaganish warrior they also became a dibendaagozi who could vote. A woman becoming a zhimaaganish was very rare, but not impossible.

Once accepted, you would need to perform a ceremony to become a zhimaaganish. You would ritually pierce your palms. This represented the pain and sacrifice you would go through as a zhimaaganish. This blood would then be collected and mixed with the blood of the other zhimaaganish on an altar to the city’s patron Ojichaag (aspect of Manidoo). This represented your commitment to the community and each other.

After that, all of your hair would be plucked out except a single strip in the center. This could be grown out and the back was often turned into a pony tail but the rest would have to be plucked periodically. This ensured that if you were scalped your soul would not be enslaved in the afterlife.

Zhimaaganish Warriors[1]​

A zhimaaganish warrior was said to “walk the warpath”, meaning to live the life of a warrior every day in every action. They were paid in manoomin so that they did not have to take time to farm. They were expected to train every day. Since they were well fed and were their training was unsupervised, some zhimaaganish took advantage of this. The fat and lazy zhimaaganish is a negative stereotype in Menominee tales. It is used to show a person or city has decayed and become decadent.

Zhimaaganish went on every military campaign. They were the scouts, the commanders, and the ones who did the most dangerous jobs. They were expected to be brave, loyal, and ruthless. They ate at the table with the Ogimaa and Sagamos. They guarded them and kept them safe.

Most zhimaaganish preferred to use a ball club or bagamaagan. It was simple and effective. Other clubs were also widely used. Copper swords and armor were for rich men. Bows and arrows were also used but they were generally seen as weapons for hunters, not warriors. Whatever weapons they used, they were expected to be skilled at their use and to be able to use them to deadly effect.

When going into battle, zhimaaganish warriors wore face and body paint to intimidate their enemies. Individuals used special war cries that were instantly identifiable. Commanders and those who guarded the Sagamos in battle had tattoos and body piercings that marked their special status. Some even used hallucinogenic mushrooms to enter a state of fearless rage before battle, though this was rare.

Commanders would be expected to make or buy their own armor in order for other zhimaaganish to know who they were during battle. If a warrior was particularly brave, they might be given a bear skin cloak by the Sagamos. This was an honor that was given only to the bravest and most important zhimaaganish. Wearing a bear skin cloak without having earned it was simply not done.

A zhimaaganish was expected to abide by an honor code and system of vendetta called aazhida, literally meaning “to go back to the way things were”. It is similar to but distinct from western concepts such as chivalry or the bushido code in Japan. Like those concepts, later histories have mythologized the concept of aazhida. In reality, the conduct that is aspired to in aazhida was often ignored in favor of more practical or unsavory methods.

With aazhida, a zhimaaganish was held to a higher standard than other men. Loosing face or doing something shameful might require suicide in a zhimaaganish while a normal man would merely be fined or imprisoned. On the other hand, a zhimaaganish warrior had the right to duel his accuser rather than simply accepting the justice of a Sagamos. The winner of a duel was clearly favored by Manidoo and therefore in the right, whatever the evidence.

A zhimaaganish who died a shameful death was said to transform into a baykok. A baykok was a spirit that haunted old battlegrounds. They appeared as emaciated warriors or skeletons with glowing red eyes, wearing tattered clothing. It would make itself invisible and fly through the air, its piercing cry alerting everyone to its presence. A zhimaaganish warrior who shamed himself or others or otherwise broke the rules of aazhida could expect to become a baykok in the afterlife.

Death of a Zhimaaganish Warrior[2]​

If a zhimaaganish was exiled or the community he served was destroyed, he was expected to wander the countryside and find a new patron. He would be called a babaa-ayaa zhimaaganish or literally “wandering warrior”. Like a knight errant in Western Europe or Ronin in Japan, a wandering zhimaaganish was romanticized. In legends, they would go from town to town, have adventures, and help the downtrodden. In reality, they were little more than mercenaries and often turned to banditry.

There were other warriors, of course. Not everyone who fought was a zhimaaganish. Most of the soldiers in a battle were levies that spent most of their time farming or doing the small but important jobs of a city dweller. The zhimaaganish were expected to lead, to always be ready for battle, and to be the best at it. They were not expected to do all the fighting all the time.

Next time, we will discuss the Tunica Empire of the Middle Mishi Valley.

---

[1] Taken from: https://www.dinna-fash-sassenach.com/en/mohawks.html
[2] Taken from: https://anishinaabeperspectives.weebly.com/blog/previous/2

Comments? Questions?

 

[Zenevidas]

What was the zhimaaganish reputation?

 

[PeterEzgo]

What was the zhimaaganish reputation?

Militarily? Fearsome but not invicible. They are gonna be better trained and equipped than a bunch of conscripted peasants but they do not have an overwhelming advantage.

If you met them on the street? You'd probably think they were arrogant. Physical and social power will do that to people.

Some places (like parts of the Three Waters Confederacy which often fights fake "mourning wars" rather than actual wars) will view zhimaaganish as unnecessary and lazy.

 

[twovultures]

Some places (like parts of the Three Waters Confederacy which often fights fake "mourning wars" rather than actual wars) will view zhimaaganish as unnecessary and lazy.

I imagine that after Norse contact ITTL, the advent of iron metallurgy is going to sharply raise the lethality of war and change the place of the zhimaaganish in many societies-though maybe not that much, since you drew a lot of parallels to other societies with iron metallurgy when you described their behavior and context.

I look forward to the next update, curious what a Mississippian civilization will look like ITTL.

 

[Johannes Parisiensis]

I imagine that after Norse contact ITTL, the advent of iron metallurgy is going to sharply raise the lethality of war and change the place of the zhimaaganish in many societies-though maybe not that much, since you drew a lot of parallels to other societies with iron metallurgy when you described their behavior and context.

I look forward to the next update, curious what a Mississippian civilization will look like ITTL.

And it might be interesting to know how many of the cities most affected by warfare would turn into military aristocracies ala Sparta.

 

[PeterEzgo]

Chapter 25: Empire of the Sun​

As maize moved north and manoomin moved south, new city-states, kingdoms, and empires began to arise in the Ziibiing. The most powerful of these was the Tunica Empire, centered on the city of Kiskis [Memphis, TN], which dominated the Middle Mishi Valley.

At its height in the 4th century AD, the city of Kiskis had a population of around 100,000, which would have made it the largest city in Minisia and one of the largest cities on earth. It controlled an empire stretching from Padukah [Paducah, KY] and Sipiwe [Cairo, IL] in the north to Yazu [Vicksburg, MS] in the south and from Senyi [Little Rock, AR] in the west to Iniki [Florence/Muscle Shoals, AL] in the east. It controlled the lower Tanasi River [Tennessee River], the middle Mishi River [Mississippi River], lower Ohiyo River [Ohio River], the Yazu River [Yazoo River], and the lower Kayas River [Arkansas River].

Map of the Tunica Empire​

The rich earth on both sides of the Mishi River provided the abundant harvests that Kiskis would leverage into a large empire. On the west bank of the Mishi, the land was suitable for manoomin but required extensive irrigation canals. On the east bank, maize was grown. This mix of different staple foods ensured that Kiskis rarely suffered famine.

The city of Kiskis was situated on a bluff of the Mishi. It was surrounded on two sides by the river. The city’s inhabitants added a palisade on the third side to protect themselves. In time, Kiskis would no longer have any need for a palisade. They had grown too powerful to be threatened by the other powers of the Middle Ziibiing. The palisade would return at the end of the 5th century AD, as their power waned once again.

As the Tunica Empire expanded, they came to dominate trade in the Middle Mishi Valley. Salt, taken from the marshes of Chitti [~Louisiana], was taxed as it headed north. Freshwater pearls, farmed in Iniki [Muscle Shoals, AL], were taxed as they head west. Copper, taken from the Mishigami, was taxed as it headed south. Long distance trade goods passed from the Caddo Kingdom into the Tunica Empire by way of Senyi [Little Rock, AK]. They too were taxed as they made their way east. Amber was mined in the lands controlled by Kiskis and formed a kind of proto-currency in the empire.

Land of the Great Sun[1]​

The city and later empire was ruled over by a Cheha or king. To many in the empire, the leader was referred to as the Great Sun (ko’o tahch’i). He, and it was always a “he”, was worshipped as a god on earth. Unlike the northern rice kingdoms, authoritarian militarism was the rule in the southern maize kingdoms. There were no elections and no consensus building. There was the Great Sun and the slaves of the Great Sun. No one else.

The most famous features of Kiskis were the Great Wajiw of Kiskis, the opulent palace on top of the Great Wajiw, and the Eternal Flame at the center of the palace. The Great Wajiw was over 250 feet tall, when you included the height of the palace on top. It had three levels, each with a steep staircase leading to the next. On each of these levels were the homes of the inner circle nobility of the kingdom, including many relatives of the Great Sun. On the top step, the palace of the Great Sun was a huge square building with a central courtyard. Even millennia after their demise, the palaces of Cheha Ko’o Tahch’i (King Great Sun) were included in myths as a symbol of opulence and decadence.

This is also the first instance of the wife of the king being called the God’s Wife and the father-in-law of the Great Sun being called the God’s Father. The family (both blood relatives and relatives of a bride). The most powerful God’s Father often wielded effective control of the state.

In the courtyard of the Great Sun’s palace, the Eternal Flame burned continuously. It was used as a funeral pyre and barbeque pit for human and animal sacrifices. Buffalo, wapiti, and prisoners of war were particularly prized. In great ceremonies, dozens or even hundreds of sacrificial victims (human and animal) were led to the top of the wajiw, sacrificed, and then ritually consumed by Great Sun and his nobility. It is likely that these tales were exaggerated by later inhabitants wishing to exaggerate the opulence of the Great Sun and by Europeans wishing to exaggerate the barbarity of the Tunica.

When the Great Sun died, his son or other close relative took over. This frequently caused civil wars. Many Cheha were buried with grave goods including sacrificed slaves and wives. Some of their tombs are important archeological sites.

Let’s discuss the major cities of the Tunica Empire:



Name: Padukah

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian and other (possibly Namana? [Comanche] though this is disputed)

Ruling Doodem: Mitig (“tree”)

Type: Tributary

Padukah [Paducah, KY] was located at the confluence of the Tanasi [Tennessee] and Ohiyo [Ohio] Rivers. It was originally a part of the Kingdom of Cahokia. A group of nomadic peoples from the west were defeated by Cahokia and forcibly settled in the region. As a result, the city’s ethnic makeup was unique. Who these people from the west actually were is disputed. Whoever they were, they became loyal subjects of Cahokia. When the burgeoning Tunica Empire defeated the Kingdom of Cahokia and drove them from Padukah, the loyalty of Padukah’s inhabitants was forcibly transferred.



Name: Sipiwe

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Sioux

Ruling Doodem: Gigoonh (“fish”)

Type: Tributary

Sipiwe [Cairo, IL] was located at the confluence of the Ohiyo and Mishi [Mississippi] Rivers. Like Padukah, it had been under the influence of Cahokia before the rise of Kiskis and the Tunica Empire. It was a successful settlement that took advantage of its position to control river traffic. Its size was limited by poor soil and frequent flooding.



Name: Senyi

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Tunica and Caddo

Ruling Doodem: None (different families appointed by the Tunica Emperor)

Type: Tributary

Senyi [Little Rock, AK] was located along the Kayas River [Arkansas River] from which it controlled trade with the Caddo people to the west. It was the westernmost city controlled by the Tunica Empire. It was originally a small settlement of Caddo people that was conquered by Kiskis. After the conquest, however, Tunica settlers moved into the city and quickly outnumbered the natives. Then a second wave of Caddo settlers arrived, seeking to become rich from the booming trade with the Tunica Empire. These “New Caddo” often clashed with both the ruling Tunica and the native Caddo.



Name: Kiskis

Population: Very Large

Ethnic Majority: Tunica

Ruling Doodem: Tahch’I (“sun”)

Type: Kingdom

Kiskis [Memphis, TN] was the largest and capital city of the Tunica Empire. Its history and geography is covered in more detail above.



Name: Iniki

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Muskogee

Ruling Doodem: Es (“shell”)

Type: Tributary

Iniki [Florence/Muscle Shoals, AL] was the easternmost city controlled by the Tunica Empire. It was most similar to the other cities along the Tanasi River. It was conquered quite late by the Tunica and only drew their attention due to their production and trade of freshwater pearls. They traded extensively with the Kusa and Muskogee Kingdoms of the southeast.



Name: Yazu

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Tunica

Ruling Doodem: Meli (“Black”)

Type: Tributary

Yazu [Vicksburg, MS] was located at the confluence of the Yazu River [Yazoo River] and Mishi River [Mississippi River]. It was the southernmost city controlled by the Tunica Empire. It was most similar to and had the most contact with the Kingdom of Macha in the land of Chitti. Yazu had controlled its own small kingdom before being defeated and subjugated by the Tunica.



Next time, we will discuss the canoes, boats and ships of the Mishigami and Ziibiing. But first, a supplemental on gender and sexuality in the Mishigami and Ziibiing.

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[1] Taken from: https://www.museum.state.il.us/Rive...tory/archives/images/economy/ptecon49clr2.jpg

Comments? Questions?

 

[Zenevidas]

Was the Tunica Empire benevolent

 

[Zireael]

Are there Inca and Aztec empires ITTL? How does the Sun Empire compare?

 

[PeterEzgo]

Was the Tunica Empire benevolent

Is any empire benevolent? They weren't particularly bad by the standards of the time. Beyond that, I wouldn't say they were very nice.

Are there Inca and Aztec empires ITTL?

The Inca and Aztec only arose in the 1400s. We are currently in the 400s. Butterflies will hit central and south america before those empires arise.

How does the Sun Empire compare?

The Tunica Empire/Empire of the Great Sun is smaller than either the Aztec or Incan Empire (much smaller than the Incas, surely).

 

[Johannes Parisiensis]

The Inca and Aztec only arose in the 1400s. We are currently in the 400s. Butterflies will hit central and south america before those empires arise.

Given that the Mexicas only migrated south from Utah in the 1300s-1400s, wouldn't larger empires in North America butterfly this?

 

[PeterEzgo]

Given that the Mexicas only migrated south from Utah in the 1300s-1400s, wouldn't larger empires in North America butterfly this?

That's what I was saying. Butterflies will hit those areas before the Aztec and Incan Empire arise. I'm not sure what you are confused about.

As an aside, the location of Aztlan, origin of the Mexica, is unknown (and it may be entirely mythical) . I've heard theories that it was as far north as Arizona but from what I can tell the scholarly consensus is further south. I've never heard its location postulated as far north as Utah.

 

[PeterEzgo]

Supplemental: Two Spirit​

Gender and sexuality in pre-contact Minisia [North America] is a complex topic. We should remember that gender and sexuality in general is complex and multi-faceted. Keep in mind the saying “all models are wrong, some are useful.” Every way that we try to understand gender and sexuality is wrong. Some ways are useful. The ways that the native peoples of Minisia understood gender and sexuality was useful to them.

In Minisian society, men and women had assigned roles and rules. These roles and rules were not that different from those found throughout the world. Women (ikwe) were expected to have and take care of children. Men (inini) were expected to do hard physical labor and protect the family. There are many nuances to these rules but we are not going to go into them today. In Minisian society, not all people fell into these two groups.

Another group a person might fall into was called ininiikaazo. This means a person who was physically feminine but spiritually masculine. Conversely, a person might be called an ikwekaazo, someone who was physically masculine and spiritually feminine. This is why it is sometimes translated into English as “Two Spirit”.

The words ininiikaazo and ikwekaazo are literally translated as iniikaazo: "women who functioned as men" / "one who endeavors to be like a man" and ikwekaazo: "men who chose to function as women" / "one who endeavors to be like a woman”, respectively. If you were ungenerous, you could translate it as “someone who pretends to be a man/woman”.

We will use the term kaazo (which does not make sense in Anishinaabe but was adopted by English speaking anthropologists) as a catch all term for both. These people did not follow our modern understanding of “trans” any more than ancient Greek men who had sex with men followed our modern understanding of “gay”. Minisian culture had a completely different way of looking at the world.

Ikwekaazo and Ininiikaazo[1]​

There is a misconception that ikwekaazo were routinely castrated. With the medical knowledge of the menominee, castration would often result in death so it was rarely done no matter the circumstances. There are stories of castrated ikwekaazo but they are clearly the exception. In one story, a Sagamos is said to have married an ikwekaazo who was later accused of impregnating another wife of the Sagamos. That ikwekaazo was castrated as punishment. This makes it clear that castration was not standard practice. However, men who were castrated were often called ikwekaazo in a pejorative sense. Castration forced them to be ikwekaazo, it was not something they were born with. Intersex people were also referred to in various similar ways. They were sometimes considered kaazo and sometimes not.

Kaazo could be a priest or a mide even if they were not in a priestly clan. They were allowed to perform ceremonies that were restricted to either men or women. This was especially important in smaller communities. Often kaazo from a larger city would travel to rural communities and were able to fulfill a role that usually required two priests. For example, man and womanhood initiation ceremonies were generally done by priests of that gender. A kaazo could perform both even though they would typically only undergo the ceremony of their spiritual side. This meant that small communities needed only a single priest for both roles.

Kaazo were considered more likely to be able to speak or commune with various aspects of Manidoo. This is why they were often used as soothsayers and prophets. On the other hand, they were also more likely to perform banned religious rituals, what Europeans would call “witchcraft”. There is a story of an ininiikaazo from Munising who worshipped wendigo in secret and was killed when found out.

Relationships, sexual and otherwise, with kaazo were not looked down upon. Although I should make it clear that kaazo were expected to have relations exclusively with people of the opposite spiritual manifestation of gender. So, an ikwekaazo (a biological man who was spiritually a woman) would only have relations with men and an ininiikaazo (a biological woman who was spiritually a man) would only have relations with women. Homosexual relationships, including those including at least one kaazo, were taboo. This could be worked around, however, with one side claiming to be kaazo. We do not know how often this happened.

Marrying a kaazo was generally considered good luck. Ikwekaazo who were members of the nobility were highly sought after marriage prospects, especially the better they conformed to female standards of beauty. Marrying someone who could not have children was a sign that you were rich enough to have an “extra” marriage solely for pleasure.

Pre-menopausal widows with children would sometimes marry ininiikaazo in order to take themselves “off the market”. Unlike men, who might marry many women, women could only marry one man. If that man was an ininiikaazo, they could focus on their living children without the threat of any future children competing with them.

In contrast, poorer kaazo often struggled to get married for the same reason. Their peers could not afford an “extra” marriage without the prospect of children. On the other hand, sexual relationships outside of marriage with kaazo would be common because there was no danger of pregnancy. This sometimes led to kaazo having a poor reputation because they were seen as inducing spouses to cheat. On the other hand, having a sexual relationship with a kaazo knowing that you could not afford to marry them was also seen negatively.

If it seems strange that we are speaking only of potential strategies in marriage, remember that love matches would have been uncommon at all levels of society. The vast majority of marriages were strategic in nature.

It should be noted that elections in the Mishigami meant blood inheritance was less important overall. Couples who could not or chose not have children often adopted cousins or nephews. This included couples that had one or more kaazo.

Next time, we will discuss the canoes, boats and ships of the Mishigami and Ziibiing.

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[1] Taken from: https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/0...DVynAEhpsbTMd-_1SaB0hmlI56SOxccMqT3VThwopC=s0

Comments? Questions?