The Dukes of Fernau, for now.

Prologue
  • THE DUKES OF FERNAU, FOR NOW
    A timeline of colonial Courland and Semigallia

    Point of Departure:

    in 1638, Courland rather unintentionally offers more religious freedom than even the Polish-Lithuaninan Commonwealth, the most tolerant and multi-faith society in Europe.


    Key Questions:

    What if, instead of Courland and Semigalia being occupied for two years in 1658, it was for a generation or more?
    And also what if the Kettlers, the Couronian trading fleet, and thousands of capable settlers managed to flee to their nascent colonies, there to survive in exile, and continue to advance as a society, untethered to their European homeland? Waiting to return, perhaps, but never idly....



    Prologue:

    Once the Hanseatic League
    Brought trade and grew the town of Riga
    God was brought there by crusade
    And Courland lived in Riga’s shade

    The Poles and Lithuania
    In their great
    res publica
    Home to rival Christian factions
    Thrived despite their Sejm’s inactions

    And then: know you of Kettler's gall
    From Semigallia to Senegal?
    The Kettler line who dreamed it all
    From Livonian Order to Tobago’s fall?

    Vassal to the Polish crown
    Neutral to the kings all around
    But great ships Courland made and sailed
    To colonies Jakob dreamed, which failed

    Let us keep the Kettlers bold
    But trace for them a different fate
    Amplify the yield of both
    Bold adventures, blind mistakes
     
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    Mise-en-scène
  • Unlike many a timeline of US presidents or English kings, for which this site has plentiful fine historians who might quickly name the relevant characters and settings of future instalments after the first post, this tale starts in a less-written-about corner of Europe, before ranging further afield where many butterflies fear to alight.

    So, a little mise-en-scène, shall we?
    Poland and Lithuania have been coexisting as a republic since the earliest Jagiellonian days, with their collective nobles electing a leader-for-life as necessary, whom Poles call their King and Lithuanians call their Grand Duke. This is the largest nation in Europe for much of its existence, home to Catholics, Lutherans, Orthodox churches (more than one flavour), heathens, heretics, the odd Muslim, about 60% of the planet's Jews, and people of miscellaneous and probably rather local beliefs.

    This "commonwealth" (not a term the res publica ever used to describe itself in its time) was both resilient and restricted for its quirky head-of-state selection. Why go to war with them if you could instead rig their next royal election in favour of your second cousin? Why build a navy to hold them in check on the seas when you could instead convince their nobles that building a navy for Poland and/or Lithuania was waste of money, and thus avoid your rival ever having a meaningful navy in the first place? Being open to manipulation, in some ways, made this republic bend rather than be broken; in other ways it would bend rather than grow taller and stronger.

    Up the Eastern shores of the Baltic came crusading knights (largely Germans) and Hanseatic traders, to beat God into locals and get wealth out of the trade routes connecting with the Volga, and via the Volga, more exotic places. Furs, timber, beeswax and more were key desirables at various times. The German-speaking knights rampaging through the neighbourhood pivoted quite well to governance, with first Prussia (the Teutonic Knights) and then Courland and Semigallia (the Livonian Order) signing up to become local rulers, both as vassals to Poland-Lithuania.

    Prussia's tale is well-told, for its impact on the history of Germany and more. So we shall turn to the other story.

    Gotthard Kettler was first a knight, then a komtur, then eventually the Grand Master of the Livonian Order. In 1561, as wars ended in Livonia (generally, most of the Eastern Baltic area north of Prussia, or at least most of today's Latvia and Estonia), he was confirmed by treaty as the Duke of Courland and Semigallia, as a vassal to Poland and Lithuania. It wasn't the prize he wanted (all Livonia, especially Riga for its trade), but still a nice rise in status for an upstart. His fellow knights became nobles, and they ruled over the local Latvians and Kurs with all the courtesy you might expect of invaders. They did some good, though, and their politically convenient conversion to Lutheranism may have helped them get along with some locals or neighbours a bit better.

    His sons Wilhelm and Friedrich ruled after him. Wilhelm had Courland in the West, Friedrich Semigallia in the East. A good horse might cross the entire country with energy to spare, if you picked the right start and finish in the North or South of the country. It was a sliver of land between the republic and the rest of Livonia, which had a way of getting fought over by neighbours rather stronger than Courland and Semigallia.

    Wilhelm got along rather poorly with Courland's nobles (by now, sons or grandsons of former knights all) and those nobles appealed to Poland to exile him. This put Friedrich in charge of Courland as well as Semigallia. Both brothers had married well status-wise (ladies from nice German noble houses), but Friedrich died childless.

    In the event of the Kettler line dying out, the duchy was to revert to the Polish crown. Friedrich (and various European allies) appealed to allow Jakob Kettler to succeed him - his nephew and Wilhelm's son. Jakob had been filling his head with languages and mercantilist thought and dreams during his father's exile, all across Europe. A Polish king/Lithuanian Grand Duke opposing this died, and a new Polish king/Lithuanian Grand Duke election was more amenable to this succession.

    Jakob Kettler was to be declared, by the King/Grand Duke, co-ruler and heir to the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, alongside his uncle.

    The year is 1638.
     
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    1. Warsaw, 1638
  • Succession

    Wladyslaw IV Vasa, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania

    Wladyslaw IV Vasa, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania


    "An end to exile at last, Jakob."

    Chancellor Firkss had loyally served Jakob's uncle Friedrich since Jakob was a child. And since Friedrich was childless, Courland and Semigallia needed an heir, and they had come to Warsaw to achieve that.

    "At last," Jakob answered, neutrally, even coldly. It had taken six years and more. The old king Sigismund was obtuse, and wanted no part of giving his little vassal state to Jakob, son of a Duke Sigismund had to disinherit and exile 30 years earlier. But the old king Sigismund was dead six years now. New king Wladyslaw and his nobles were more agreeable.

    Well, mostly more agreeable.

    Jakob's father agreed in spoken vow and in writing to yield his claim to the Duchy in favour of his son's. Step one, if you will.

    Duke Friedrich had charmed a surprising diversity of diplomatic pressure on Poland and Lithuania to agree. England sent Sir Thomas Roe, for god's sake, who had probably visited more lands than Columbus. Never mind that England loved Courland for its timber and friendly Baltic ports of call, or that Jakob was the godson of the English king. Courland's nobles loved Friedrich, Friedrich loved Jakob, so Courland loved Jakob. Step two, if you will.

    This one disagreeable thing was the paper Jakob was staring at, pen in hand. This one disagreeable thing looked like it belonged to the old King's time rather than the new one's. This one disagreeable thing was step three. A pledge Jakob was expected to sign. A pledge that the Protestant and Catholic Churches would be equal in Courland.

    Firkss sensed Jakob's unease. A near whisper: "Pledge, Jakob."

    Jakob's eyes lifted from the paper to Firkss, and around the room at the King and Grand Duke Wladyslaw, his advisors and attendants. His gaze paused a moment longer on the Jesuit priest nearest the king. Jakob's grandfather had been the last leader of an order of crusading knights, knights who pretty much created Courland and Semigallia. Strong Catholic credentials, those. He'd also converted himself and all those ex-knights to Lutheranism after, the better to get along with the locals. Not particularly strong Catholic credentials there.

    Jakob had travelled half of Europe, fought in Russia, studied in Rostock and Leipzig, lived in three courts and many more cities. He realized he simply didn't want to see the kind of Catholic pressure the old king Sigismund tried to foist on Poland and Lithuania unbalancing Courland under his watch. Poland and Lithuania were as diverse as any place in Europe could be, the more with the bigger kingdoms working more and more by divine right and kicking out those who didn't follow their preferred way of god-fearing. This felt wrong here, even to a pragmatist like Jakob.

    "Sign, Jakob."

    By now Wladyslaw and his Jesuit were both curious at the delay.

    Jakob sighed. He considered the successes of Germany, where his forbears had come from, and its diversity. He considered the successes of Poland, to which Courland had been a vassal for three generations, and its tolerance and challenges with intolerance.

    He signed as instructed.

    "The Protestant and Catholic Churches will be treated equally in Courland and Semigallia under my reign." He said this precision and diplomatic neutrality. "I, Jakob von Kettler, swear it."

    "Then I, Wladyslaw Vasa, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, Sweden et cetera" - he waved at a scribe to be sure to record the titles more completely than he'd spoken them - "declare you the rightful heir of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia et cetera again." The scribe filled in the blanks, then stopped at a change in the King's body language. "Jakob: you may rule with your uncle but only in his name. Maybe build a nice church or two."

    "Thank you, my King. I shall." Step three.

    Firkss knew when Jakob's mind was flying, and when it alighted on a fully-formed idea after. They walked in silence during the first part. Only after Jakob sighed deeply did Firkss speak again.

    "Why the delay signing, my young duke?"
    Jakob smirked at the first use of his new title. "I didn't appreciate having Jesuits put words in my mouth. So we shall fulfill their promise in our own way, just to assert a little independence. When we get home, you shall draw up for me a declaration that in Courland and Semigallia, all religions are equal."

    It was the chancellor's turn to smirk, though his face looked like he didn't appreciate the humour as much as Jakob did. They both saw it as an insignificant and petulant insubordination, nothing more.

    They were both wrong.
     
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    2. Kaminiec Podolski, 1639
  • Death of The Grand Crown Hetman

    Stanisław_Koniecpolski.PNG

    Stanisław Koniecpolski, Grand Crown Hetman of Poland/Lithuania
    "Fo- Fo- Fol-" The Grand Crown Hetman stuttered. "Kurwa mać! "

    Somehow, obscenities never triggered his stutter, though so much else could. Soon, nothing would. He was dying, bleeding out on the cobblestones of this lovely town, here on the edge of Polish Crown lands. Farther West than the Cossacks had tended to attack in their various little uprisings.

    "Follow the enemy. Yes sir." Samuel Łaszcz signalled to his men to make it so. Łaszcz was an able enough commander, and could have managed putting these damned Cossacks in their place without him. The King's Jesuits had smarted at him giving some Jews too many rights up in Palanga, and were probably keeping score on half a hundred other ways Poland was too easy on non-Catholics. And their whispers inspired the King to make a point.... So never mind how old he was getting - Koniecpolski had to be seen defeating the Cossacks, wherever they tested Poland next.

    And oh, yes, they made a point. Never mind that this was but a skirmish compared to the uprising the year before. The Cossacks were thrashed. But still, the old Hetman was shot, and shot in the neck, and that would be that.

    "Te- te- te-" he took as deep a breath as he could. "Tell the king. Thank him. For... all. And... sorry."

    "It will be done, my lord."

    "And tell my s- s- son to s- serve. K-keep s- serving. Be a good man. Give him my love. A- and my ring." He started to gently twist it off himself.

    "Sa- Sam.. uel..." the old man's fingers stopped working at the ring. Everything else stopped too. Samuel removed his own coat, and covered the old hetman's face with it. Then he teased the ring the rest of the way off and pocketed it to bring to the old man's son.

    "It's been an honour, sir."
     
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    3. Mitau, Semigallia, 1639
  • The Dukes Old and Young

    image006.jpg


    "Elisabeth! It's our young duke here to regale us with tales of our realm!"

    Duke Friedrich Kettler was 72 years old and didn't have the energy for governing much any more. Duchess Elisabeth was only a bit younger at 59. Fortunately for them, the "young duke" Jakob - their foster son - probably had the energy to administer any 5 kingdoms at once.

    "Greetings Uncle! And you, aunt Elisabeth! I trust you're both well?" They all sat.

    "Well enough, young man." Elisabeth waved for refreshments. "As for the rest, you'll understand when you're old."

    "What news from Windau and the West?" Straight to business, then. Friedrich loved hearing all the ways Jakob dreamed of improving Courland, and loved all the more hearing the ways he'd actually begun making the improvements happen."

    "We're starting to build ships, Uncle!. Both in Windau and Goldingen. I've brought in Dutch master shipbuilders, and our freemen and serfs are taking to the craft well. We used to supply the timber for ships to other countries, and now we're doing the work ourselves, here. " Friedrich smiled.
    "This year's plantings on the crown manors are using some of what I learned in my studies. It's still early in the season, but I think it will give us better yields even this harvest. The Dutch need more corn, so we're trying to grow more of that to trade with them. And the manors should start producing more butter, wool, and meat too."

    "You know," Friedrich lazily interjected as he accepted a cup of wine from a steward, "you'll have to take time away from all this farming to do the work of a Duke one of these days. I won't last forever."

    Elisabeth positively snorted at the joke. "You barely have to do any work, my dear. You need only step out in public on happy occasions to receive the love and affection of your people."

    "Just that - it's positively taxing, dear." He gestured aimlessly with his glass, smiling. "This business of inspiring love all the time, it's exhausting. Oh - on the topic of love and its importance in ruling a duchy, though - shall we start making some enquiries about eligible young German princesses on your behalf? Courland and Semigallia shall also be needing a Duchess one of these days."

    Jakob was already 28. Perhaps exile had delayed such things. He'd filled the time with learning instead.

    "If it pleases you, Uncle."

    "Any other important matters of state on which you need the wisdom of your elders?"

    "I'll always welcome it!" Jakob paused a moment. "Actually, there's something where a bit more wisdom might have helped me before. As we were setting up the shipyard in Goldingen, we were bringing in craftsmen and goods from all around. You might remember King Wladyslaw declaring last year that the Jews in Polangen had certain rights, exemptions from some duties for example. Well, some of those Polangen Jews were trading with us, bringing this or that of the supplies we needed for the shipyard."

    "You know exactly which supplies, and in what amount." At Friedrich's interruption, Elisabeth dipped her fingers in her water glass and flicked at him to hush him.

    "Of course, Uncle!" Jakob smiled. "Onward, though. These Polangen Jews also had goods that had nothing to do with our shipyard, and sold those as well. Our collector there asked for duty on the other goods - he was a sensible enough man not to charge for the goods for the shipyard. These Jews said they should not have to pay any more than any other merchant - because the young Duke of Courland had declared to the Diet that all religions should be treated equally."

    "Ho ho! And the result?"

    "There was at first some conflict, with one of the Jews strongly but peacefully insisting, and a freeman of a local noble's estate striking him, pushing him to the ground. It fortunately went no further, and I was myself visiting Goldingen the next morning. The story was presented to me, to my satisfaction. The hotheaded freeman I left to his liege for justice, though I voiced my displeasure. And the Jew was allowed to buy and sell with the same duty as any other trader. I even encouraged him and his company to return, and trade at Mitau and Windau., or across to Riga."

    "Your great-grandfather would surely roll in his grave - the more so if he hadn't converted to Lutheran ways after winning the Duchy."

    "I'm sure you're right, Uncle. But I quickly saw the goods bought and sold, and thought of it little differently than I thought of the new agricultural ways we are now practicing on the ducal farms. For good or ill - or both - this is a seed we have planted. It is already growing. It will surely bring change and likely bring trouble. But its harvest will surely bring us fortune as well."

    "May it prove so, Jakob. You have a way of peering toward the future and seeing more than most do."

    "Thank you. The more commerce up the Amber Road, the better. No matter how the traders worship."

    Elisabeth felt more skeptical than her husband. Didn't each new generation always shock the preceding one as it outgrew older ways? Still, the trade. Jakob's efforts to expand trade in the duchy were already clearly paying dividends....

    "To commerce, then, nephew." She raised her glass, the old duke and the young raised theirs in response.

    "To commerce."
     
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    4. Bila Tserkva, Ruthenia (Poland), 1640
  • Motke the Merchant

    "Walk away, with and from."

    The words were a shock. Maciej probably only registered them at all for their familiarity. His family had passed down stories of "Motke the Merchant" - some family ancestor who had led a colourful life a few generations ago. Motke was a real ancestor and was a real merchant, too. But by now some of the stories probably had some variations of the tales of Sinbad in them, or Aesop's fables, or any number of true merchant stories from Yiddish memory, or even Polish or Hanseatic memory too.

    Maciej might have been named "Motke" himself, but his father thought it might bring him fortune to have a Polish name now that their family had been settled - even thriving - in Poland for so long. A Polish name didn't feel like good fortune today.

    The common thread in these Motke the Merchant stories were some deal that suddenly or less suddenly turned sour, forcing Motke the Merchant to walk away from the deal he thought he would have, and choose what things he needed to walk away with, versus what things he could bear to walk away from. A handy framework for wrapping life lessons into bedtime adventure stories any child would happily devour.

    Maciej's shock at his father's words came from the context. He was 16 years old now, fully capable of assisting his father in managing this estate or any other estate to the exacting standards of any Polish nobleman. He was probably better than his father at anything to do with managing the horses and the bookkeeping. He wasn't really of an age for bedtime stories any more. And his father seemed to be more talking to himself, here on the hill between the mansion and the stables. And a moment ago, they'd been talking of death coming for all Jews and Poles, from down the river.

    40 people had come, all of them Jews, all exhausted save a few who had been riding horses or horse-drawn carts. His father has asked Maciej to bring them water, bread, and any possible comfort, with the help of any of the available serfs. Then his father had gone to greet them.

    ---

    "We come from Cherkasy. The Cossacks came there from Czehryń killed every Pole and Jew they could find."
    "Oh... oh... Come: drink, rest. And tell us the tale, as you can."
    "Koniecpolski tried to force the wrong Cossack off his land."
    "Koniec - "
    "I know what you're thinking. This was the son of the old Hetman. He thought it might honour his father's memory to go tell a bunch of Cossacks their land was actually his father's, and now his."
    "The Cossacks disagreed, I take it?"
    "Yes... though it was more about which Cossacks disagreed. Have you heard the name Bohdan Khmelnytsky? Yes? Respected. Educated. Experienced warrior and leader. The key bit of land was his. Blink an eye, suddenly many peoples grumblingly tolerant of having Poland in charge are armed and allied."
    "But doesn't Poland always brush these uprisings off?"
    "Scale, my friend. They probably thought this was another uprising like that, and sent the first force they could to crush it quickly. It seems they were crushed instead. That was three weeks ago, and I haven't seen news of any Polish officer of significance alive and not captive. I'd have seen such news, had it come West. Have you heard anything?"
    "Not from that way. The family of this estate went West. Safety for their younger children, just in case, and military duty for the older ones."
    "We must seek safety for our own, now. The Cossacks will come here. If we are here - including you - we will die. Do you know where we can go?"
    "I've always heard Jews are welcome in Warsaw, and Krakow. And though I can't speak for the welcome, I've heard Courland's given up taxing Jews any more than anyone else."
    "I prefer our chances farther from Poles, for now. If you have the provisions and horses, we'll head north to Viciebsk in Lithuania, then follow the Daugava to Courland."
    "You know the land well, then?"
    "Just the maps. Part of my family tree goes back to navigators and mapmakers in Mallorca, before. We've passed down some of the skills. Half the family documents I saved are probably maps."
    "Before. I'm sorry."
    "We all have some sorry in our stories. Let's try not add much more today and tomorrow."

    ---

    The serfs, under the guidance of Maciej's father, tended to the guests. They would not normally have been accommodated in the house; but normally wasn't today. Normally wasn't Poles and Jews killed wherever Cossacks could catch them.
    Maciej took charge of the horses. Every horse and cart from their estate was to be used to travel. The horses and carts the guests had come with needed more tending to; Maciej had others tend to them, and pack any food that could travel well was packed and put on carts or in saddlebags. He asked that they record what was where, and in what quantity. And then he rode to the town, to the synagogue, to tell the Jews to prepare, and warn the Poles... to warn everyone, really.
    Then he returned to the estate, and saw the packing and preparations in the stables were well in hand. Most of the serfs - neither Polish nor Jewish - he told to go to their families and stay there. The rest he would need in the morning, after which they too would be let go. By the time he deemed the work and records sufficient, he returned to the mansion. There, he found the refugees either asleep or else staring blankly in a way that might have been nearly as restful as their companions' sleep.

    Then Maciej and his father stepped under the stars to walk toward their smaller cottage. Both were bone-tired from helping others, and only spoke what most needed speaking.
    "Father, I passed news to the synagogue for them to share. We are provisioned for about four or five days. We will need to resupply as we go. Whatever blankets people are using here they can pack in the morning."
    "Thank you, Maciej. Well done. It strikes me that today you are "Maciej the Merchant", worthy heir to Motke the Merchant. Before you sleep tonight, look around our home. We may not see it again. Decide what you must walk away with, and what you can walk away from."

    ---

    Maciej slept. He dreamed of maps and merchants, of men seeking to make it home to their families with wild profits, or else with their lives, or both. Any threads of story were muddled and inconsistent. Merchant stories aren't so different from pirate stories, it's just about how little land is in the telling.

    ---

    When the first rooster crowed, Maciej and his father woke. Maciej went to the stables with the walk away with belongings they'd each decided were too precious to leave behind. He would never enter that house again, but that thought didn't enter his mind. He directed stablehands - liminally, they knew their work - to get packs and saddlebags onto the horses... and everything else. And then he took his favourite horse, "Miko", on a short ride to look at the land around. They expected trouble from the East or Southeast. He saw nothing out of the ordinary. Maybe trouble was out of earshot of roosters.

    The guests sleeping in the mansion might also have been out of earshot of roosters. Or else the call of a rooster wasn't enough to break whatever peace or horror they found in their dreams. Maciej and his father woke those that needed waking, prepared those that needed preparing. After a breakfast - mostly the foods that wouldn't travel so well - they were ready to go in an hour.

    And in that hour, trouble woke, too.
    There were fires to the south, visible in the morning light, and there was dust. Maciej wasn't really sure what signs to look for, but fires and dust seemed enough. He rounded the hill to find his father, who he found speaking to the man - Tevel - who'd spoken on behalf of the Cherkasy Jews when they arrived.
    "Forgive me interrupting. Fire and dust They're coming.
    "From which direction?"
    "South. From toward Uman. Not Cherkasy."
    Maciej knew that any raiders from that direction intent on killing Poles and would be headed right to this hill and Bila Tserkva behind it.
    His father turned to Tevel, then back to Maciej.
    "Show us, son."

    ---

    And so they had rounded the hill again, to see how fast doom was moving. Doom nearly always moves too fast, including on this morning. And this is where Maciej felt utterly displaced to hear his father mumbling, to himself or the coming Cossacks:

    "Walk away, with and from."

    The hill paused a moment, at that. They did not seem to have enough time.

    "Tevel, take the left way around the town. Once Bila Tserkva is behind you, I think you will be safe enough, at least until Bila Tserkva's fate is also decided. Beyond then, may your family's maps guide you well."
    Tevel nodded, in silence, and bowed deeply enough to leave Maciej confused.

    "My son. I am thinking now on all the stories of Motke the Merchant. Misadventures, discoveries. We've laughed at poor Motke's expense for nearly a century now in this family, yes?" He chuckled, and smiled at Maciej. Then he sobbed. "I know this estate and all it holds. I can give the Cossacks reasons to pause here, as Tevel's people did yesterday. I am hearing the voice of Motke telling me that a deal has been lost. What I must walk away with is the knowledge my son lives. And to have that, I find I am willing to walk away from everything else. Including my life."

    Maciej stood in silent shock.

    "For it to make any difference, you must go now." He put his arms around his son, so slowly, so firmly. "I love you, my son."

    "I..." Maciej's arms finally embraced his father, now that he knew he would never again do so. "I love you."

    They held the embrace for a long time, though it could never be long enough. Then his father walked back to the mansion on the hill, without looking back.

    ---

    Nearly three weeks later, hundreds of Jews arrived in Dünaburg, and crossed the Düna river there into Semigallia, which one of Tevel's more fanciful maps showed as the tip of an eel's tail - the furthest inland corner of Courland and Semigallia, with the Baltic end of the country shown as the eel's open mouth. Tevel's people and Maciej were outnumbered by so many from Bila Tserkva who had joined them after Maciej's warning. Others who remained within that town's walls died there, or fled and died elsewhere, or some few fled and lived on elsewhere.

    The number of refugees was so great that the Duke himself rode to greet them by the Düna, and decide what to do. At first, Duke Jakob spoke to the leaders of the Bila Tserkva Jews, the most numerous group among these new arrivals. But eventually, they introduced him to the "mapmaker" and the "young man whose warning saved us."

    "Welcome to Semigallia. I am Jakob, Duke of Courland and Semigallia. I understand my nation is richer by a thousand or more Jews thanks to" - he held out his hand at you to make clear he was asking for their names - "a mapmaker and a young man who managed many caravan matters."

    Tevel bowed. "I suppose I am your mapmaker, my lord. Tevel ben Elisha. Truthfully, more an estate manager than a mapmaker, though."

    Tevel's and Jakob's eyes turned to Maciej.

    "My lord." For nearly three weeks, his Polish name had felt like a risk or a curse on the one hand, and a last inheritance from his father on the other. But he had other inheritances from his father, too.
    "Please call me Motke."
     
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    5. Economic Historian Blog: "Good, Fast and Cheap"
  • So, you want to write about economic history? How about writing about the history of economics? Well, I have bad news for you.

    You know that classic old triangle:
    Choose two, loser.


    Well, most writing about economics and history is the same. Take "good economist" "good historian" and "good writer" and choose two. The third, well, sorry. It is the nature of the universe that you will suck at the third.
    (Actually, if you chose "good economist", chances are you'll be a limited writer anyway.)

    I've been reading "Outsourcing Empire: How Company-States Made the Modern World" lately. Great book if you love dense language and sentences with long words, multiple clauses and complex thought all layered together like a multiversal Celtic knot. I'd run it through Google Translate, only Google Translate tells me it's already in English. Ok, so I'll just go get my big boy masters student pants on, slam back a coffee and see what knowledge I can disentangle from the prose.

    Seriously, the book makes good points. I'd just rather understand them more easily, because I'm lazy and TAs are underpaid.

    You have the Dutch East India Company, and the English/British one, both founded at the start of the 17th century. You have the Portuguese sailing the fuck out of the shores of Africa and the Indian Ocean, too, with a slightly different economic model. The Brits and Dutch both handed a whack of autonomy and monopoly rights to these companies, and their interactions with those they met, and each other, ended up laying the groundwork for international systems of trade etc. Portugal was less completely a company-style approach - there was a whiff of that in Prince Henry the Navigator's time, and much much later a company-style approach for their factories and land holdings in India in particular. But all told, a little different.

    Why this model? So kinda-sorta-private enterprise is goaded into investing in taking the risks and grabbing the goods for your country. It totally worked, even if in many cases the crown (or royal family members) would own a chunk of the ventures.

    What fucking blows my mind is the exception. Courland and Semigallia comprise this backwater duchy in the armpit hairs of the Baltic, poor as dust. The Duke's got completely crap ability to tax people without nobles backing him up, and they sooooo don't back him up, and yet he still Westernizes the place in the span of two decades, growing industries like shipbuilding, iron-making, gunpowder manufacture and more out of basically NOTHING. How? He's just the paramount landlord of the place. If nobles won't let him up the taxes to fund stuff, he'll just point at some land he owns, piss on it like some magic dog, and POOF up springs a state-of-the-art factory to make new cool shit.

    All those other countries had wealth, and people, and prodded them to go forth and take over the world's wealth, women, and wherewithal by offering them monopoly rights over giant blobs' worth of world maps. There was no Courland East India Company, or Courland West India Company, or Courland Africa Company (not like the VIC and EIC, anyway). There was Jakob Kettler-comma-landlord investing in putting new and profitable things on land he owned, like your weird uncle buying ever more Lego sets to fill his basement.

    No wonder Sweden had to yeet that dude right out of there. No wonder it didn't really stop him.

    ---

    With apologies and thanks to Andrew Phillips & J.C. Sharman, who really made good points in this (real) book. It's just a bit densely written for my taste.
     
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    6. Letter from Jacob (aka James, in English) Kettler to Charles I of England, Scotland, Ireland et cetera
  • Dearest Charles,

    It has been far too long since we have met in person, but I am glad we manage to keep up this correspondence until we remedy that. I must thank you very much for your letter, and your interest in Baltic affairs.

    Chiefly, it is interesting to read of your interest in on the one hand our influx of Jews and Orthodox Christians on the one hand and on the other in our shipbuilding and other growing industries here. As it turns out, the two matters are linked.
    As you know, my travels and education in my youth in exile drew my attention to so many matters mercantile. Once allowed to return and rule in Mitau, I was quite resolved to do all I could to modernize the economy of this country by every means possible. As you know, I am blessed with neither your tax base nor taxation powers, but as the main landholder in Courland, there are enough ways to create revenues, invest them in industry, then repeat by creating more revenues from the industries and creating still more. I love this country, but its small population can indeed be a constraint. The more so when you are asking for people to do entirely new things, and learn work unfamiliar to them.
    This is why it has been fortunate for so many refugees to arrive in Courland when they did. I should say, not only
    when, but also which - because these newcomers, particularly so many of the Jews, come already knowledgeable and skilled in all manner of affairs required to manage any estate. And in truth, the finances, accounts et cetera of managing a new enterprise in a new industry are not so different from the finances, accounts et cetera of managing a Polish noble's estate. Truly, it has been a blessing for us to be able to welcome them to Courland. Even as more various peoples flee the Cossack troubles, or flee some strife in the Muscovy lands, we are fortunate to be able to welcome then and put them to work alongside our own peoples. And our own peoples welcome them, because they see themselves and their neighbours thriving. Some say this is Courland's golden age. I am reluctant to call it that myself, as I wish for still more.
    To your own troubles, then: it saddens me to hear that things have not been going well between yourself and your parliament. Your father - my godfather - had the same challenges, but it seems these have grown, based on your telling. It was understandable that you should reject the suggestion that your daughter should be wed so young, but it is gladdening that the Dutch are tolerant to a longer engagement - young Mary is possibly the most desirable match for any European crown prince nearing his majority.
    But your conflicts! They shock me. To hear that English and Scottish armies are rising against their King, and the Irish are opportunely rebelling too - I am so sorry you face this, god-brother.

    I stand ready to help you, both materially and in counsel.
    As I have said, Courland's shipbuilding grows apace. You had expressed an interest in purchasing timber from our mills - instead we can offer you ships from our shipyards, with cannon from our foundries, and gunpowder of our manufacture. By the time you receive this letter, six strong ships should be well on their way to Leith, as I trust they will more safely come into the hands of your loyal forces there than anywhere further south. We ask only that you welcome Courland's other ships in your ports and waters in the future. I shall be soon be seeking colonies for sugarcane and other valuable warm-weather crops (perhaps also some saplings grown from the Jesuit's bark seeds you sent, which we are managing to keep alive, though only indoors - how on Earth did you obtain them?). Such ventures require friends, and friendly waters, ports, and markets.
    We shall also stand ready to sell you powder and arms at fair rates, should you find yourself requiring new suppliers.

    It was good that you stood by Lord Lindsey in his disagreement with your nephew, Rupert. Family are ever loyal, but those experienced with command have a different seasoning to them. It is tragic you must battle your own subjects, but for the best that such a battle be led by reliable men.

    Which brings me to the counsel. Dearest Charles, the rapidity of Courland's progress has come by allowing greater freedom to people in what they believe, or at least by showing indifference to their beliefs from a legal or taxation perspective. We would surely be advancing even without, but I have the wits to recognize that our advancement is rather greater with. And from this surprising lesson comes my advice to you: if you might gain somewhat greater loyalty from a somewhat greater share of the peoples of Scotland or England through showing somewhat greater indifference to their varying beliefs, it has the potential to be for the best. But to succeed at it, all the people must have work and opportunity. A man of one faith does not envy the wealth of neighbour of a different faith so much, when he himself is thriving.

    May you make your people thrive, and be loyal again.

    In fidelity and brotherhood,

    -- James Kettler --


    Post Scriptum: I have not yet "muscled in" as you put it to the Volga trade to obtain those exotic wares you seek. I have lately had to settle for trade deals with the French and Dutch. And some French things are exotic enough for most Latvians and Latgalians.
     
    7. Eastern European diplomacy, 1640-44
  • Two things to remember about the time before the Deluge: First, Sweden and Poland/Lithuania were never truly at peace before it happened. They had merely maintained a cease fire for over a decade. And for its part, Russia was still licking its wounds from losing its Baltic possessions (mostly to Sweden), Smolensk (to Lithuania) and the war Poland had declared a generation earlier, in which their king also claimed to be Russia's tsar.

    Good fences make good neighbours, they say. These were neighbours with smouldering fences.

    Swedish diplomacy, ever since that cease fire, aimed to draw Russia into conflict with Poland once more. It also aimed to needle Hapsburgs wherever possible, the better to grow Swedish influence and territory in Germany (Pomerania was already well in hand). Russian diplomacy, ever since that war with Poland, was to oppose Hapsburgs anywhere politically, but avoid being drawn into any actual warfare without the confidence of a nice, tight coalition.
    Polish and Lithuanian diplomacy, well, that was a less clear thing. They were in the Hapsburg camp, to be sure, marriage deals and all. But Polish kings/Lithuanian grand dukes had a rather less free hand in their rule than Swedish kings or Russian tsars. If the szlachta opposed you in something that needed doing, you compromised.
    As it turns out, compromises in matters military are rather more painful than compromises in matters diplomatic.

    Other neighbours were forward-thinking, oblivious, or indifferent.

    Last one first: Khmelnytsky's Cossacks were indifferent. Diplomacy was a thing to do while resting, healing, and resupplying between battles. Battles were their focus; battles earned them status no amount of diplomacy without battles would have.

    Oblivious was Courland, eagerly modernizing and putting their own population and immigrant ones to work at an amazing pace, making things and becoming an essential part of so many international supply chains. Neutral to everyone, but also an annoyingly indispensable trading partner to everyone. North of them, Livonia was oblivious for a different reason - war would only bring a new master, and a new master wasn't likely to be any better for Livonia.

    Forward-thinking were the schemers and their allies-to-be, waiting for the right offer to pick a side, or switch. Turkey, whispering with Russia and Sweden and the Cossacks and Crimeans and Transylvanians. Sweden, stirrer of pots and poker of bears. And some would-be rebels, anywhere. Some scheming Lithuanian nobles mused about breaking their union with Poland, and if so when, what the cost of it would be, and whether that cost might be less than what the Cossacks and whoever's armies came after the Cossacks would take from them.

    But there is no ally like an ally already fully committed in the field. And while Eastern European courts flirted with each other - and courts further West, too - it was only the Cossacks already committed, so far. All without having committed to any alliances - yet.

    But the wolves were circling, slowly.
     
    8. Königsberg, Prussia, 1641
  • Two Princes

    One two princes kneel before you
    That's what I said now
    Princes, princes who adore you
    Just go ahead now
    One has diamonds in his pockets
    That's some bread now
    This one says he wants to buy you rockets
    Ain't in his head now....

    "Two Princes" by Spin Doctors
    - - -

    "Papa, out with it. You simply cannot hold such a secret in you. Your face looks like a bloated tomato when you try to hold it in."

    Princess Louise Charlotte of Brandenburg was impatient. It wasn't that she was eager to be wed, exactly. But that was clearly to be the next big event her life was to encounter, and she was more the sort to get a thing done and move forward from there.

    Her parents, Georg Wilhelm of Brandenburg and Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, had themselves married as an alliance of good Protestant families. They raised her as a Calvinist. Calvinists had a certain discerning logic to them, she'd grown up thinking, and she liked to think that was in her too. They were pragmatists, but with goodness and God ever in mind.

    "All right, my little princess." This was a jibe, pure and simple. Louise Charlotte was already twenty-three years old. "Your mother and I have indeed chosen. I believe you already know there were no fewer than eight suitors asking for your hand. Of these, we had narrowed the collection down to two: Władysław, house Vasa, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Jakob, house Kettler, Duke of Courland and Semigallia."

    "And you've taken my desires under consideration in your decision?" She was willing to marry a Catholic. But she was interested in marrying a man of action and learning.

    "We did. We wrote to both of them, and amid the expectable pleasantries and formalities, we asked by what means and in what forms each of them might give you the gift of a good life. One pledged to make you the most influential lady in Eastern Europe, dazzling diplomats in courts near and far, beloved by all her people as a symbol of their virtue and wisdom."

    She read his body language as a mere pause, and not as any call for her to react. So she reacted not at all, and waited.

    "The other proposed to sate your love of gardening. But, boldly so. He would partner with you to find the most interesting and useful plants from five continents and grow them in gardens on at least three. He will have boats made to gather plants, gardeners, and such great minds of agriculture and horticulture as you might invite along to see these gardens thrive, and make the land and people thrive. Which should we marry you off to? He who sees you as a diplomat or he who sees you as a gardener? "

    "I confess, father, this will be the first time I consider the undertaking of gardens to sound more ambitious and interesting than the undertaking of statecraft."

    "Just so. Therefore, my darling, you shall be the Louise Charlotte, Princess of Brandenburg and also" - he paused for dramatic effect, face in full tomato mode - "Duchess of Courland and Semigallia before summer is done."

    Louise Charlotte smiled - only smiled. "Thank you father."

    "You are very welcome, Luischen. God knows I may not have been the best leader for Brandenburg during the contest with the Catholic Emperor. I tried to keep us neutral and we all know how that turned out for Brandenburg. For my part, it's not so much the spite of denying my daughter to a Catholic, and more the soft spot I have for how young Jakob's trying his own way to nurture his own kind of neutrality in Courland. All this while Poland seems half falling apart. As for your mother, she wants for you a man with a mind she's confident can keep up with yours."

    "May I have your leave to go give mother my gratitude as well?"

    "You may indeed. She is already writing letters to every acquaintance she has in France, England, Holland and even Spain in search of the most exotic possible seedlings for a wedding gift. Save her."
     
    9. Goldingen, Courland, 1641
  • A Game of Chairs and Apples

    "Gentlemen, I regret that Jakob has yet to return from his visit to his grand tour of his western factories. The making of tar, ships, saltpeter, lime, paper, glass, timber and the rest is surely more exciting than the prospect of a ride homeward to discuss mere matters of state. But let us not wait to discuss some of those matters, agreed?"

    Louise Charlotte had been Duchess since the summer only, and had already earned a measure of deference among Jakob's primary advisors. Today's guests were "the Fs" (Firkss, Filkersamb, and Fischer), plus Dönhof, ben Elisha, and Pletenberg. In such company, deference to her came from at least three things, in varying orders of importance depending on the advisor:
    1. that she was their Duchess by marriage to Jakob
    2. that she had in mere months taken the estates of her dowry and launched those estates into dairying and the advancement of her "dowry gardens"
    3. that she was already with child, and in no way slower for it.
    The men all assented, and her Goldingen household staff brought refreshments.

    "You are all by now well in the habit of conversing with Jakob about his various enterprises. I will leave you to all that upon his return. For two reasons: primo, that you are his council (official or otherwise) because you are all men capable of furthering his initiative, and secundo, that being such men as to advance such initiatives serves to amplify two critical things. Namely, Courland's ability to achieve Jakob's dreams on the one hand, and on the other, Courland's inability to see what Jakob has the inability to see."

    At this, the men were generally stunned. Firkss, the chancellor, spoke first.

    "My lady, you have a rather savage way of getting directly to the point. In the duchy's interests, let's dispense with expressing gratitude for the compliment you paid in the first half of that. What is Jakob unable to see?"

    "For every month I have been in Courland, you have all worked 10 months under his leadership, plus however many before that under Frederick, when Jakob and his thinking were already surely well known to you. The duke is a man of paramount vision, and possesses the capacity to see the future of any enterprise, particularly those related to commerce or industry, and is a superlative judge of how all the steps necessary to realize such enterprises might be taken for optimal results. And yet: in no way does being an excellent judge of enterprise serve to make him even an average judge of character."

    "And we, who are charged primarily with the advancement of his various enterprises, we worsen this about him?"

    "The more Jakob sees successes and challenges in all you do" - she gestured generally in front of the men - "the more his attention is drawn to further such successes and challenges. You make him better at what he is best at. It may be the duchy also needs men to make him better at what he is presently worse at."

    This inflicted upon the room a thoughtful pause. It was ben Elisha*, the "Mapmaker of Mitau" who spoke first.

    "My lady, what might the responsibilities be for a Minister of Judgement of Character? To assess the trustworthiness of men upon whom Courland's success most relies?"

    That, and to focus on matters toward which the Duke's considerable energies are simply not directed."

    "Such as war." Filkersamb spoke it plainly and neutrally.

    "Yes. Or matters of relationships somewhat adjacent to war." She narrowed her eyes. "Gentlemen, kindly stand up. You're going to play a game, and to play it, I wish to move your chairs. The "Fs" first. You shall be a team. Firkss, bring yours here. Sit - you are Sweden. Here I walk across the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic, the Gulf of Finland, and - Filkersamb, your chair goes here. You are Russia. I am admittedly placing you nearer Novgorod than Moscow, but so be it, the room is only so large, as we don't want you so far you can't hear the rest of us. Fischer, that leaves you about there" - she pointed - "as the Turkish Empire."

    This left five chairs somewhat inside the area surrounded by the three already positioned, geographically unspecified.

    "So, we have F for foes. Pletenberg, as your name starts with 'P', you shall be Poland. Do sit here. Ben Elisha, with my apologies, your name starts with a 'B', so you'll be Bohdan Khmelnytsky's Cossacks in Ruthenia. Over here, in front of Fischer."

    All eyes turned to Dönhof. "Am I to be 'D' for Deutschland, then?"

    "Fine. Near enough. You are the supposedly Holy, assuredly not Roman, certainly Empire of Ferdinand the third. Sit here - your chair is vaguely Vienna."

    With that, Louise Charlotte was the only one left standing, barring servants. She nudged the last two chairs into position, almost in a row between Pletenberg and Firkss. She then moved tow small tables to each side of the empty chair nearest Firkss, and relocated the trays of apple slices and pitchers of drink to those tables. She then sat in the chair between them.

    "We are ready, then. The empty chair is my father's family in Prussia. I am fittingly not sitting there, as my place is now here," she pointed at her own chair. "This last chair is Courland in our game. And my apologies to you all, but Courland is pregnant and easily tired, so the food and drink is with me. Perhaps that's reason to covet my chair." She grabbed a slice of an apple from a tray and made quick work of it.
    "I will propose to you something that could reasonably happen in any of these lands represented in our chairs. Or I will state some fact. I will then ask you each what you do in your roles. Simple."

    "Pletenberg! You've failed to convince your nobles to let you raise a decent army or build any navy at all. Ben Elisha - you see this clearly every time you thrash another Polish fighting force in the field. Dönhof - do you care? Do you act?"

    "Care, yes. I may need to marry off some Hapsburg princesses. Act, no."

    She picked an apple off the tray and threw it to ben Elisha. "Congratulations, you pluck the heart of Poland. If I recall my husband's vassalage correctly, he puts three hundred cavalry in the field at some point in the failed defence." She flicked another apple slice off the tray as the made the point. It broke in two on the floor. "Courland loses too."

    "Next: Russia and Sweden each want more of the Baltic. Both are strong, but not confident enough in themselves and each other. They enlist the Sultan for help, in Constantinople and a little nearer in Crimea. Our 'F' team works in concert. Fischer, what do you want in such an arrangement?"

    "Good relations with major powers. I like a stronger Sweden and a stronger Russia, so long as their strength is further away from my lands. I also like anyone on my Balkan borders nervous. Lastly - Crimea's not mine, my lady. They are just my friends."

    "Fair. So you help Bohdan enough to keep Ruthenia out of Russian hands, and maybe help your Crimean friends - thank you for the correction - gain lands or slaves or whatever they like. Meanwhile up North, Sweden and Russia are emboldened to act. Filkersamb, how do you act?"

    "I take Smolensk back from Lithuania. I'll keep going to Riga if I can get there, then use it to take any foothold on the Baltic I can get. Otherwise, I play nice with Sweden and offer them support to strengthen their hold around Riga if they'll give me any port in Livonia - say, Narva."

    "Firkss, does Sweden love new Russian friends that much?"

    Firkss simply scoffed. "I send fleets across the Baltic from Sweden, and armies by land down from Livonia. I take Riga before the Filkersamb wakes from having a dream about it."

    Where the Duchess had been most animatedly directing the game and conversation thus far, she nearly whispered now: "And then?"

    "I suppose an army in Riga might as well conquer Courland too. Maybe I coax Prussia to become a Swedish vassal instead of a Polish one. The Eastern Baltic is mine. I sue for peace once I have the lands I want, so Russia's advance is halted earlier. They get Smolensk, and perhaps some more of Lithuania."

    The duchess grabbed another three apple slices from the tray. "Half of Poland" - she tossed a slice to ben Elisha. "Half of Lithuania" - another slice, to Filkersamb. "The rest of both" - she rose and tossed the third slice to Pletenberg. Then she turned the empty Prussia chair toward Firkss.

    Then she kicked the Courland chair over.

    "Courland dies, gentlemen. Its foundries, shipyards, timber mills and whatever else either go silent, are destroyed, or become Swedish. I have no meaningful defences, no army or cavalry of note, and no tax base for mercenaries."

    She reached down, casually, and lifted the chair back to its original position. Then the turned the Prussian chair back around.

    "Care for another round? Some of you might get more of these lovely apples. The empty chair might face different ways" - she illustrated by pointing it toward Filkersamb, then her Courland chair, then back to Pletenberg - "but I promise you my chair will get kicked over rather a lot."

    As it was no longer a game, the men collectively and wordlessly resolved that to play another round was not necessary.

    By the time Jakob had returned from his tour, his council had resolved that Courland needed better fortifications, that better fortifications were almost certainly insufficient to defend it, that Courland most particularly needed to generously offer good deals on apple slices to its neighbours in order to avoid said neighbours kicking over its chair.

    Or, failing that, Courland needed plans to get its trays of apple slices safely away when the this or that chair-kicker came.

    - - -
    * the same Tevel we met in the "Motke the Merchant" chapter, now employed at gathering all possible maps and geographical knowledge with which to equip Jakob's colonial ambitions, as well as better informing Courland's shipbuilding where possible.
     
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    9. Letter from Jakob to Constantijn Huygens, 1642
  • Dear Sir Constantijn,

    It is with great joy that I received your letter, and greater joy still that you have not yet seen fit to reject my proposal. By your wit and vision, I see why it is that Sir Thomas Roe referred me to you. I believe our views are rather more in alignment than not as regards a University in Courland. We have all this growing industry in our towns, and need only fill the minds of the next generation with the vision to take the greatest possible advantage. We advance in so many crafts here, it will not do for us not to become leaders in their application.

    Courland - and Europe! - will benefit from bright young men undertaking a truly
    practical study of commerce, mathematics, engineering and construction, geography and cartography. I mean to generate the best possible shipbuilders, navigators and astronomers to carry us across oceans, and then have the botanists, linguists, masters of agriculture and merchants to recognize and seize all possible opportunities where we alight.

    That you should express an interest in the education of music seems a less complementary goal, but I have no objection to a curriculum of this as well. The duchess would surely support this as a form of patronage of the arts. And visual arts are absolutely complementary to cartography - though I dare say too many of your country's cartographers think to gain notice by the images they place at the
    edges of their maps rather than the absolute utility of the information in the middle. I will gladly take any recommendation you have for a teacher of cartography, now that you are aware of my bias in this field. Courland does not have a true master cartographer as of yet, but I do have a very enterprising procurator of maps, whose collection has informed my utilitarian preference.

    But still, though you continue to
    not decline my offer, it is easy to note that you have also not accepted. If there are matters to discuss regarding your autonomy to appoint masters in all our fields, please say so. If there are matters of your family's comfort, be assured we shall keep them in comfort. If you even wish to see the university located in Windau or Libau rather than Mitau, I shall accept such conditions without hesitation. You are the man for this enterprise, Sir Constantijn, and for my part I will give it all the support it requires to become a university worthy of your legacy.

    With eagerness and much admiration,

    -- Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland and Semigallia and aspiring patron of the arts and education --

    Post Scriptum: It remains unclear to me whether you and Sir Thomas have ever truly met, or whether each of your diplomatic oeuvres have simply caused each of you to recognize each other's imprimatur in European affairs intimately. May we together make such an impact on European education as well.
     
    10. A south-facing bay in South-Western Tobago, 1642
  • The Duchess’s Second Garden

    "Lower anchor, then lower the shore boats. Tell the other ships to do the same."

    The Captain was a Scotsman, Clement Keir by name. With all the trouble between Scotland, England, Ireland and their King, it was a fine time for an enterprising Scotsman to take employment outside their own country. He wasn't the only Scotsman among the crews and colonists, but assuredly the most prominent. A plurality of the higher-ranking crew were Dutch, while a majority of the lower-ranking ones were Lavtians, Kurs and Livs. Duke Jakob's suggestion that the Kurs had sailing in their veins from centuries of meeting or fighting the Vikings seemed to be holding up. Perhaps they hadn't sailed in over three generations, and when they had, not on boats like these.

    These were four man-o-wars, made in Courland's coastal shipyards from Courland's and Semigallia's timber, with cannons from its own Courland's foundries, et cetera, et cetera. The most inconspicuous thing not from Courland or Semigallia was the iron, which the duchy had to import, most often from Sweden. And the most conspicuous was the people. However many different peoples lived in Courland and Semigallia these days - Latvians, Livs, Kurs, Baltic Germans, Lithuanians, Poles, Jews, Swedes, Finns, Russians and whatever traders came and went - the diversity of people was still greater on these ships. This was to be Courland's second attempt at a colony on this island, the first having failed three or four years earlier. And however multi-ethnic this colony was, it was still more Couronian than the prior one.

    Clem looked to the shore of the bay. After a modest sandy beach, the land swelled into green hillside. Some islands are mountains, rising sharply from the sea, trying to scratch the sky. Tobago didn't seem to have that kind of initiative, feeling more like a family of gentle hills or whales or those manatee creatures he'd seen on a previous voyage, all lain upon one another. His sense of smell made him wince at his own metaphor... best to leave descriptions to others. Nothing on this island resembled a river to either his eye or his cartographer's, but having circumnavigated the entirety, they had faith water would not be scarce.

    If Clem was the leader of all these people at sea, the man next to him was to be their leader on land: Cornelius Caroon was Jakob's appointed Governor of New Courland.

    "Have ye thought o' what name to apply to this bay yet, Governor?"

    Caroon, like Keir, kept his eyes on the shore. "The leeward side already has a Great Courland Bay from the last try here. Great Semigallia Bay seems a bit boring. Do your sailors give names to help them keep an island's points of reference clear in their minds?"

    "Aye, but we willna put those names on a maps to be seen by gentlemen."

    "Fair. But all the same, indulge me, between us who are not gentlemen."

    "Great Courland Bay is already named. And Couronian Point. A name ye've stared at on your map all the voyage long is a name you respect and use - at least if you like those who named it. Folks rather like your duke, so Great Courland Bay 'tis."

    "And the others?"

    "Clockwise: Couronian Point, Buttocks Bay - makes more sense seeing that on the map, the Heads is the coast with three points jutting out from an otherwise straight shore, then you have Great Courland Bay, after that the coast isn't that compelling name-wise. Until you get round the top and there's the big bite bay, round but deep into the island like someone's bitten from it. Round over the top, then, and windward you get the biggest of the islands around Tobago, so that's Little Tobago and Little Tobago Bay. For these German-speakers we've got, maybe that's Tobagochen Bay. South of there you get The Teats, because anytime there's two of something sticking out at ye, that's all sailors can think about. They dinnae look much like teats, but that's sailors for ye. I think I named a pair o' hills "the teats" when I was a younger sailor, and it more or less stuck - a witty cartographer named the bay between those hills for some princess." Both laughed. Then, noting a nearby sailor holding back his own laugh, they cut their laughing short.

    "With all due respect, Clem, I'll be stopping you there. Because if I'm to name something after the Duchess of Courland, I'll have to be able to say with a straight face that it was without any baser motive."

    "Aye. You're not wrong to do that. You've met the woman, after all. So, then? Louise Charlotte Bay? Duchess Bay? It is a lovely bay we're in."

    "I think I'll keep matters simpler and name the bay for the task most personal to our Duke and Duchess. It will be Garden Bay, and somewhere overlooking it we'll start the second of those gardens the Duke promised to the Duchess. Who knows how well our colonists will manage to get sugarcane growing here? But if we face challenges in that, it will keep spirits up to put efforts into a venture so dear to the Duke and Duchess. "

    "Garden Bay is a fine name. After we've offloaded ye, I'll be sailing on to map the coast from Trinidad westward, meeting natives and trading for or collecting more plants for that garden. I'll be seeing your progress afore a few months are passed. Two of the other ships head to find anything of value at English, French or Dutch isles to bring back to Europe. And the last ship will fight the currents that brought us here until they find some southern mirror image of the Volta do mar. That'll be the one that gets the best of our supplies."

    "Do you think they'll find one? Another Volta, I mean?"

    "I mean, winds don't turn corners or suddenly blow backwards. Somewhere, this wind" - he waved a hand like a leaf on a breeze - "meets that wind" - he waved the second, on a tangential trajectory - "and past that point the direction is different. Or winds hit a shore, and shores sometimes change winds. They'll find something. Maybe something the Portuguese have already found a long time since. We'll just see whether they find something useful."

    "Godspeed to them. Perhaps they'll find a good place for the Duchess' third garden."

    "Aye. Godspeed indeed. But for now, let's get your people ashore in comfort more than haste, shall we?"

    - - -

    Many slept ashore that night, under the stars, with or without shelter, dreaming what dreams came at the end of so long a voyage. The first gardeners of Garden Bay.
     
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    11. Events leading to, and results of, the Treaty of Trakai, December 1644
  • Disease, Death, Divorce, Dismemberment and Dünaburg

    People always talk about one specific part of a phoenix's life cycle. They talk about the phoenix rising from the ashes, over and over, and never much bring attention to the phoenix having to die over and over and over to get to the bit where they rise from the ashes. Maybe once, it is snuffed out like a candle, pinched between gloved fingers. Maybe once, it crashes into water, quenched in a fatal cacophony of steam. Maybe once, it just stopped burning, inconspicuously, unseen.

    The history of Poland is much the same. You'll hear tell of when this or that royal line was extinguished, but Poland rose from the ashes by voting in a neighbouring country's Grand Duke, or voting in an entire new dynasty. When they voted a woman to be King, because their laws said they could not be ruled by a Queen, but those same laws said nothing about any requirements for a King's gender. When they were overthrown by internal revolt, neighbouring countries, general failures of centralizing enough power under their King's command... Poland kept rising from the ashes. There might be an improbable recovery from a siege, an invasion, diplomacy, defeats of their never-sufficient armies. Poland would come back, ruled by someone new, working with a new covenant between King and szlachta, befriended by powerful foreign friends or pulled by wealthy foreign puppet strings. Poland rose from ashes.

    The corollary is that Poland was repeatedly reduced to ashes between resurrections. The most fertile national fate one could imagine for Catholicism to grow in, thrive in.

    The Cossacks, once they had all Polish crown land East of the Dnipro and a much of the downstream land West of it, had not since been dislodged. They lost skirmishes, they won battles. They lacked only legitimacy, and various neighbours expressed varying interest in helping them with that.

    Lithuania, having itself been victimized by some Cossack raids as well, had lost patience with... everyone. With Russia always threatening and looming over Smolensk, with Cossacks displacing refugees northward or even raiding into Lithuania itself and killing or driving off Lithuanians, or driving off other peoples living there who made so much of Lithuania's economy.
    Russia wanted Smolensk back. And Baltic trade. And a Baltic port in which to do that trade. And for Sweden to stop being so manipulative without ever committing to actual action. Russia wanted to be seen as part of Europe.

    The Crimean Tatars were loving the chaos, thriving in it. Where Cossacks attacked, Tatars joined them and returned to Crimea with new slaves to sell in the markets of Constantinople... or Istanbul, as more people were starting to call it, the Tatars among them. The Ottomans always welcomed more slaves, and would only accept non-Muslims. And with the Cossack lands buffering Crimea from Poland otherwise, it was a surprisingly safe set-up for gathering slaves to trade, then sending them south across the Black Sea.

    Other neighbours of the Ottomans looked nervously at their southern borders as Lithuania looked at Russia. Poland was rarely foremost among neighbours they thought about...

    Until the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania fell ill. In the span of a week in 1643, he disappeared from public view and died. Died at home, in bed, not in any battlefield restoring the country's borders and authority. Wladyslaw was never the healthiest of men, and the stresses of rule in a time of rebellion wore him down all the more thoroughly. His heir, Sigismund Casimir Vasa, was but three years old.

    A phoenix might live, and be reborn again. But in between one life and the next is a time for vultures.

    The szlachta of Poland and Lithuania argued about who might be elected King and Grand Duke next. Wladyslaw's son? One of his brothers? Someone else from a country that would become a sudden and desperately needed ally? If they chose the three-year-old, who would be regent? All szlachta were equals. But kingmakers might be more equal than others.

    The Cossacks fortified their positions, mostly, advancing or even pulling back where they thought to have a clearer frontier with its neighbours. From Proskuriv northeastward to Zhytomir to Korosten, the land was Cossack land. If things were blurrier West of that, Khmelnytsky seemed willing to let a border land there. And while the Cossacks showed restraint in the field, they threw themselves into diplomacy. Letters to Krakow and Warsaw and Vilnius told of what royal candidates they would be more inclined to fight with or make peace with. He wrote to Sweden, to Prussia, to Courland, to Hungary and Transylvania and to Russia.

    Russia stopped waiting for Sweden to shit or get off the pot. Two slow, strong armies moved West. One sauntered up to Smolensk, which Russia had wanted back since losing it to Lithuania decades before. It laid a siege, almost formulaically, testing for what reaction might come from Vilnius. Vilnius sent an army. But when that army came and easily broke the siege, a second Russian army moved into Inflanty Voivodeship - the last Polish/Lithuanian remnant of Livonia after all it had lost to Sweden before.

    And amidst the chaos, Vilnius couldn't muster forces for defence on another front quickly enough. Courland and Semigallia fulfilled their vassalage obligations and got enough men, guns and horses across the Düna to hold Kreutzburg and Dünaburg, but while that saved two towns, it couldn't help hold any of the land around. So Vilnius, too, sent letters. The ones of greatest consequence were penned by Janusz Radziwiłł, a rising force in the Grand Duchy since his father's death.

    And Radziwiłł's Divorce played out like this:

    When Poland and Lithuania's szlachta gathered in a Election Sejm to choose a new King and Grand Duke, the Lithuanians walked out, claiming they would not accept any Grand Duke elected without representation from all the countries' regions. Poland elected Sigismund Casimir Vasa as King, and set to selecting a suitable regent.

    The Lithuanian szlachta invited the Cossacks to their own Election Sejm in Vilnius. The Cossacks were legitimized at a stroke, and had turned an enemy into an ally in Lithuania. The Sejm elected Sigismund Rákóczi, son of the Prince of Transylvania, as the new Grand Duke of Lithuania and Ruthenia. A Protestant to further separate Lithuania and Ruthenia from Poland.

    Then Russia, seeing the Cossacks slip from their grasp and into Lithuania's, set to securing peace. The final treaty was signed at Trakai, one time capital of Lithuania. The Tsar was ill and did not come in person. Poland didn't have a regent chosen yet, but sent a hetman. Radziwiłł and Khmlenytsky supported their new Grand Duke. Jakob Kettler came and signed too.

    Russia had won Inflanty, save for the two towns on the Düna. They had a border with Semigallia now, and could nearly smell the Baltic. For their feinted siege of Smolensk, then won trade rights in that town, and the right to appoint nobles so 5 hereditary titles there - a foothold to influence Lithuania's future Sejms.

    Inflanty went almost entirely to Russia. With neither Kreutzburg nor Dünaburg being adjacent to Lithuania or Poland, they were given to the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, which Russia loomed over on the right bank of the Düna. Courland remained the vassal of Poland rather than Lithuania - as previously in their history, they chose to swear a vassal's oaths to the more distant neighbour.

    Poland had lost its crown lands in Ruthenia and beyond. To some, it had lost half of itself by losing Lithuania, birthplace of its greatest dynasty. Having shared jurisdiction over Inflanty with Lithuania, it had lost there too. It held on to Greater and Lesser Poland, and its vassals in Prussia and Courland and Semigallia.

    A phoenix, turned to ashes, not yet rising.
     
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    12. Mārtiņa Jūras Akadēmija, Libau, 1645
  • In the Name of Three Martins

    Christiaan had not been in Courland long, but was already developing a taste for the balancing act that was the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia. It was evident even in the name of this college his father was to be rector of. Martin Maritime Academy. Named for three different Martins. A speech was being delivered about each one of them in turn, up on the stage. His father, the rector, was introducing men who spoke of each of them. His father greeted people in Dutch, then spoke in German. Most of what was said was in German, though sometimes a few consecutive words of Polish, Latvian, or Lithuanian crept in. Something that might have been Finnish or something towards Finnish came was said at some point. Maybe it was mangled. Maybe Christiaan wasn't standing close enough. Maybe not standing too close was better.

    The first, of course, was Martin Luther. That speech had been delivered in German, by a Baltic German - a Courland noble, he thought. From Christiaan's experience in fencing, he saw this as a poke in the eye of Poland. You are the vassal of a rather enthusiastically Catholic regime? Name a college after Protestantism's greatest banner man. They'll surely love that.
    It was just one example of religious balance in the small country. Duke Jakob openly admitted that Courland's version of religious freedom was the result of spontaneous decision and not careful forethought. But now it had taken in so much of the Jewish population of Ruthenia and was starting to absorb many from Lithuania too - those nervous about the balance of power with the Ruthenian Cossacks, who had killed so many Ruthenian Jews. Old Believers had been trickling into Semigallia from Russia before. But now Russia was a mere river crossing from most of Semigallia and a breath away from Kreutzburg and Dünaburg. And now Russia was rather ominously active in Inflanty. Old Believers were coming in greater numbers now, via more varied paths.

    The second Martin was a rather older one. St Martin of Braga. It was almost sarcastic to reference him, having first referenced Martin Luther. It might be seen as even more sarcastic to have a Jew give the speech about him. Whoever it was - Christiaan didn't catch the speaker's name - he greeted the crowd in what was probably Yiddish or Hebrew, then spoke in fluent but accented German. Martin of Braga literally wrote the book on religious tolerance, or at least among the earliest books on religious tolerance. It was De correctione rusticorum, all the way back in the 6th century. The Kurs that gave Courland its name might not have even advanced to the point of burying their chiefs with live horses yet at that point. Or maybe that was another of the local peoples. Christiaan had more learning to do on that front. Besides fencing, his education thus far had included rhetoric, mathematics, geography, languages and history. But Latvian was not among the languages he'd already picked up. Martin transforming to Mārtiņa... declensions and cases seemed to get messier and stranger the further East one travelled. Perhaps, were one to travel Westward, one might find a land with a language of optimal simplicity and purity. A ridiculous thought, but positing it and savaging it in the span of half a breath was what his learning in rhetoric had been for, he supposed.

    The scope of this university was also a compromise. It called itself an Academy, on par with some other great places of learning, but not blustering its way to any grander title. Perhaps that appeased Poland a little, just as referencing the second Martin's name apologized for the first. "Maritime" meant a compromise on curriculum. There would not be faculty for everything one might learn at the Kraków Academy, or in Leipzig or Prague. Perhaps less rhetoric for Christiaan now. But more mathematics, and applied to fields like Navigation, Geography, Astronomy. Why? Because if you asked Duke Jakob Kettler to compromise on an ambition he held, his father had told him, Duke Jakob would take away three of whatever couldn't hold his interest and add twice as much of whatever could.

    He looked around the square in Libau - not quite a square in truth, as one side was open to the harbour. This was probably the heartland of the Kurs, centuries ago. They'd mixed geographically with Livs and Latvians and more since, but the place was still Kur-land. And today's crowd had Kurs, Livs and Latvians amidst the burghers, shipwrights, merchants and Academy teachers and students - it seemed Duke Jakob had made ensured a full crowd for this occasion by pausing work at the shipyard and various other local industries and having their masters and serfs come here for an hour. It might have been to not have to shout over more harbour sounds. But from what he'd seen and heard of this duke so far, it probably served more than one purpose. Whatever bakery had supplied the sweet buns would certainly be doing good business after this event.
    A half-century ago this town was small, and poor, and forgettable to anyone not living nearby. Now it had a formidable shipyard, a formidable synagogue, various growing industries, all interconnected. Every venture that was keeping this growing populace busy was one that could be improved by a Maritime Academy. And if so, the Maritime Academy would be fed, quite deliberately, with tantalizing problems to solve.

    Christiaan knew he and his brother were here because his father had agreed to be the Academy's first rector. Still, his father said he'd accepted the post partly out of what challenges Courland's ambition might offer for his sons' keen minds.

    Up on the makeshift stage - you could tell it was made by carpenters used to building ships - his father's voice grabbed his attention, as a parent's voice does. He spoke in German, having not learned enough Latvian yet.

    "Men and women of Libau, visitors from across Courland and Semigallia, students of this academy - I introduce to you your Duke, Jakob Kettler."

    A fairly informal introduction for the occasion, Christiaan thought. Maybe if this were the first university on the Baltic instead of the third or fourth (does Copenhagen count, he wondered? Uppsala shouldn't, should it?), then maybe they'd have more formality and even more Baltic languages included for pleasantries and politics.

    When the Duke spoke, it fit the pattern of the other speakers: German with a side of Latvian and Dutch for his new rector.
    "Paldies visiem. And you, Sir Constantijn, jij ook bedankt! Welcome, all, to your Academy." The crowd knew when to cheer. Or perhaps: the bakery workers and their friends knew when to toss out more sweet buns. "Here Courland will welcome the world, embrace it, learn from it, and from here we will venture forth into the world with knowledge, skill, and boldness. I now present to you the third Martin who has given this academy its name." He turned away, and was for a moment out of Christiaan's view as he descended a stair or two. "Libau, I present to you my son and heir, Mārtiņš Kettler." Some in the crowd heard that "š" and cheered for it more than anything they heard before it, and those folk had been the loudest cheering for the sweet buns, too.

    Young Martin, age 3, did not cry. Neither as he was held up, nor as the crowd erupted into cheers.

    "Libau, I apologize for not introducing you to my son before now. Do forgive me - we have been saving his first visit here for this very occasion. Our Sir Constantijn needed time to be convinced to take this job." He set his son down. "Martin, would you pull that rope, please?"

    Martin Kettler toddled over to a rope, hanging from the side of the new college building. He pulled. The first pull wasn't quite strong enough, and the crowd chuckled as the boy looked up to the other end of the rope.

    Little Martin pulled again.

    With that, a flag unfurled. It was divided in four quarters. Clockwise, from top left, it showed: a black crayfish on a raspberry red field - the naval flag of Courland; the Libau emblem of a red lion with a split tail supporting a linden tree; a man-o-war on a navy field, itself flying the black crayfish flag; and lastly a telescope, book and sextant, each in gold, on a field of black. Christiaan thought this would look all better as a crest than a flag.

    Somewhere in this town, tonight, men would be drinking as they listened to songs of that Libau lion, and to stories of what ships flying that raspberry red flag with the black crayfish were up to. If Christiaan would be hearing those, his own thoughts might be cast towards how the sextants, telescopes, and books were involved.


    - - -
    With enthusiastic thanks to @Jürgen , whose gentle correction on language prompted a few edits to this post, as discussed 4 and 5 posts below this.
     
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    13. Economic Historian Blog: Nodes and Networks
  • **EDIT: Wow! About 4 times the hits on this entry since I wrote it last year. And now, in 2010, still hits. My readers sure love their Courland and Semigallia stuff. Since the hits keep on coming, here's a quick summary of my previous entry on Baltic trade in the mid-17th - since, doing the math, at least 85% of you seeing this entry haven't read that one - shame on you. Basically, everyone around the Baltic has the same tax problem. The Poland, Lithuania and Ruthenia, Sweden, Courland and Semigallia: everyone's crap at getting their people to pay taxes. Why? All nobles are notionally equal. So one, even the king, can't tax any others without their consent. Such consent is obviously not a consistent thing. Result: Poland can't fund an army to save its life. Ditto Lithuania, though they got better after Trakai. Sweden has to take over neighbours to take their shit and tax them for making more shit. Russia... let's skip recapping Russia, because not Baltic (yet). Good enough excuse.
    Original post follows below:

    Ok, soooo much going on. Duke Jakob's industrializing the heck out of everything. Courland's inserting itself into every possible trade network, and trying to do so on the global scale. Let's look at this outside-in, then inside-out.

    Outside-in: a couple centuries prior, the Portuguese nudged their way around Africa, working out where the gold was, how neighbours beat each other up and either put them to drudge work or sold them off, especially as the Portuguese kept (a) dying from tropical diseases (if you thought the Europeans infecting the Americas into population collapse was interesting, how about Europeans showing up in tropical Africa and dying at a 25 to 75 per cent per annum clip while trying to make a buck) and needing to recruit new labourers, and (b) making money hand over fist by trading stuff that was cheap in Europe for gold, which was very not cheap in Europe, and (c) discovering that the hoped-for Kingdom of Prester John was, in fact, not a thing.

    Ok, that thought meandered. But Portugal figured out gold-centred triangle trade, and plantations, etc. Have gold, buy ships and crews, send ships and crews to get more gold and slaves, get slaves to do labour in terrifying ways and with increasing efficiency growing exotic things, then selling exotic things back in Europe and investing the gold along with the profits.

    In the early days, gold was seen as key to that, and other European nations sent their own ships out looking for their own sources out there. Spain rolled the Incas and Aztecs and pretty much anyone else via Guns, Germs and Steel (awesome book - read it!). The Dutch set themselves up wherever they could in the Indian and Atlantic oceans, the English and Scots stalled in their squabbles but eventually set to doing the same. Sweden and Denmark and even Malta got in some of the game.

    And Courland, of course. Some of the bigs figured gold was the key thing. Courland figured the cycle was the key thing. The logic wasn't that novel, the difference was that Courland (maybe Malta too? use the web form below if you want a colonial Malta post!) started the game with a lack of wealth, and just set to getting the triangle trade adding wealth by sheer volume of ship traffic. It worked, a bit. They got wealthier from it, though probably less than they did from fantastic investment, generation, and reinvestment of wealth back home (at least before the sense of "home" blew up).

    Courland was a node on a global network. And on that scale, it was less noteworthy for how much of a node it was and more for how much network traffic it generated. Nobody that small should have ever become a sea power.

    Inside-out, then: rapid growth and diversification of the economy had all kinds of fun effects. Instead of setting up in his Uncle's capital in Mitau, he set up in his father's in Goldingen. That made Goldingen a political hub, even though Mitau was one still. And with Louise Charlotte's great garden there, Goldingen was gaining influence as a centre for learning about botany and even early pharmacology. The Maritime Academy in Libau drew so much learning to Westernmost Courland, but also tuned the industries around there: glassmaking for telescopes and other optics became more experimental and efficient there than anywhere else on the Baltic. (The Dutch doubled down on nicknaming Jakob "the skipper duke.") Innovations in shipbuilding tend to be slow or lurching, but it quickly became the case that Libau ships became the ambitious ones, while Windau made the tried-and-true ones.

    Even outside these major centres Courland was investing and growing. Dams and watermills popped up in even small towns like Tuckum, and routes - let's not call them "roads" and raise modern expectations - appeared or grew between towns, getting Tuckum's flour and copper to Mitau, for example, and bringing back all the things bigger Mitau had for Tuckum.

    But good fences make good neighbours, they say. And Courland (Semigallia, really) was now neighbours with Russia, and held two towns on the Russian side of their river border. The main artery of trade here was the river itself (the Daugava, we call it now), especially from Lithuania on down to Riga and then the Baltic. Courland had the lions' share of boat traffic up and down the river. Jakob's version of "good fences" was called "money" - the new border should be treated as an opportunity for trade (like everything else). And so Kreutzburg needed a bridge. In that integrated, Courland way, it played out like this: students from Martin Maritime Academy were invited to come survey, sketch and paint potential crossing points into Kreuzburg. Prizes for best painting with and without a bridge. Then, they were invited to propose designs and plans to build them. More prizes for fastest-to-build, most-financially-sound, and best overall. And prizes for best miniature version. Some lucky winner would get a contract to build the actual bridge, second place would be invited to build another bridge elsewhere in the Duchy.

    Bridges. Take. Time. But building a bridge, literally, is also building a bridge, figuratively, to whoever's on the other side. Making Kreuzburg into a trade node to connect Russia with Semigallia might not divert too much trade from Riga, but surely some. Success on that front, yay Courland. The more Russia and Sweden gave each other the side-eye, the more Russia was happy to pay Courland duties rather than Riga or Livonia duties. As a bonus, boat traffic passing under a bridge is more easily controlled or taxed than boat traffic where a bridge is lacking.

    So guess which emerging new trade route ended up being the most important? Just one more way Jakob scored in trade and paved the way - almost literally - to his downfall. But still, trade! (Why else would Courland get its own Baltic trade entry in the blog?)
     
    14. Letter to Jakob from Lud Sellin, Captain of the Duchess Elisabeth
  • My lord Jakob,
    I write this at the end of Summer, 1645, in Lisbon. Today I met with your man in Lisbon. He will see this gets to you. These notes are mostly drawn from our logs.

    We sailed west-by-southwest from Trinidad. This sailing was against the current and not fast. We passed the guianas sailing toward and away from the shore. This was not tacking. We wanted to find places where winds and currents changed. A gentle eastward current we found farther out. We sailed more zig and zag to find westward currents both north and south of this. This was somewhat north of the equator. We turned south of this current in search of another southward one. The westward currents pushed us hard in the search. We reached and paused at an island called Francisco de Noronha. The Portuguese grow much there and gather goods from the continent to ship back to Europe. South of there we found our southward current. We saw the shore on and off. We sailed zig and zag again to test current we rode on. Our current turned to the east and got colder. We think cold water joined it from the south. We followed where it led. The maps we came with told us nothing. May our charts bring you much value. At around 36 degrees south we woke to see what may have been an island in the distance, but it was already behind us. We stayed with our current. It was wide and we sailed zig and zag again but not crossing its full breadth. We wanted to find its inner edge. The winds were strong, steady and helpful. With our maps and measurements and guesswork we reached and stopped at the island the Portuguese named Saint Helena. My lord, you asked for recommendations of places either to grow goods of value, to trade things of value, or to make a beautiful garden. The winds and currents make Saint Helena a fine place to trade with ships from India and its ocean. It seems not a place for growing goods. I am a poor judge of gardens. You could place flowers there but I know not what else would grow. A colony there could feed itself but perhaps not with a notable surplus.

    After Saint Helena. We were confident a westward current could return us to Noronha or Trinidad and Tobago. It may have been the same current we zagged into before turning south. With naught but ocean west of us it felt certain. Currents and winds aligned. Travel from Saint Helena to Tobago should be an easy matter. Another captain can test. We sailed north with helpful winds in search of the thin eastward current we found east of the guianas. This time we zigged to the landward side and reached the Portuguese Gold Coast. Currents are confused and weaker near the coast. We paused at El Mina and sailed west keeping near the coast until it turned south. We put in at three islands our maps called Fernando Po, Santo Antonio or Principe, and then San Tomé. These islands were all in a straight line south by southwest from a massive mountain on the coast of the continent. You might just see each from the next on a clear day. We did not have such a clear day. The south faces of these islands have such rain as can not be believed. The north sides seem drier. Our charts made notes of weather and mountains. Principe and San Tomé are busy with Portuguese activity. The island nearer the coast they seem to have abandoned to natives and former slaves. If you have good relations with Portugal, you could put gardens or plantations there. Being close to the continent could help trade or could bring danger if the native peoples come by boat. That may be why Portugal left it. I do not know. We took on some natives of that island, including three who spoke Portuguese and claimed to have Portuguese fathers. They could understand some languages spoken from there to perhaps El Mina.

    After the islands we returned homeward. We paused again at El Mina and found ships from Denmark and Sweden and the Netherlands there or nearby too. All seek their own forts and trade. We kept to or near the coast and passed the Saint Paul river, the Geba, and the Casamance. At the Gambia we turned to explore the river mouth. Two islands we found matching your interests. One at the river's mouth might meet all trade heading inland. It is low and flat and the sort of river mouth land to be loose its shape to flood without trees to hold it in. A second smaller island lies upriver after it widens toward the south, narrows again then turns. Halfway up this turn is a small island a little nearer the right bank than the left. It would be a poor garden and an insignificant plantation. But it would be a formidable fort to command trade upriver. We met with a local chief or king and offered to pay to lease it. He was agreeable. He will watch for a ship to return with the black crayfish flying.

    From there, we sailed the Volta do mar to the Azores and back to Portugal. Our crew are only a little ragged, and scurvy has not hit us too hard. We all welcome a little leave in Lisbon.
    I reported to your man in Lisbon all the above and more according to his questions. He has kept the Portuguese-speaking natives of Fernando Po for future use. The rest we will bring to Tobago with along with new provisions for that colony.

    Kapitan LUD SELLIN

    post scriptum
    I am sorry the Gambia islands do not seem to make for good gardens when they are good for so much else
     
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    15. Krakow and Trakai, 1645
  • The Evolution or Elimination of the Liberum Veto

    Jan Bileski came that day
    Heard things he thought weren't okay
    Raised his hand to loudly say
    "Nie Pozwalam!" to the fray

    They asked Jan to hear them out
    "Let's hear what you object about!
    Then we'll all agree, without
    Whatever words have made you shout!"

    All the szlachta looked around -
    listened for a voice or sound
    All law-making ran aground
    Jan Bilesky was not found.

    Jan Bilesky came that day
    Heard things he thought weren't okay
    Fought a law the Polish way
    Then mounted up and rode away.

    -the Ballad of Jan Bilesky, 17th century


    "Szlachta of Poland, the day is coming when we shall have to choose between keeping our Liberum Veto and keeping our country intact. I say this because today we are to discuss taxation, as the crown needs revenues."

    This was said by the Polish regent, Jerzy Ossoliński, before the Sejm had even begun. The word "taxation" was the one that started the murmuring.

    "I say this now, because if any man among you is to use their veto to bring proceedings to a halt before we have conducted business vital to the kingdom, I will expect that veto discussed and resolved. There will be no wild flights like Bilensky in the spring. I have forbidden the stables to release any of your horses from their care without my explicit permission. Should any man who calls out his veto and does not offer us all the chance to resolve the matter and resume our Sejm, this will be my answer: one whoever voiced the veto has left, and anyone agreeing with him has left, I shall invite all the remaining szlachta to be the new szlachta of Poland, and resume business without any departed szlachta formerly of Poland. I will be sure to insist that among the matters discussed in this hypothetical second Sejm, we shall discuss whether the districts of those departed szlachta shall continue to remain part of Poland, or be treated as vassals of Poland, or be given to one of our existing vassals in Prussia or Courland. We will also surely then discuss precisely how generously any new vassalage agreements will be expected to remunerate the crown of Poland."

    The following silence felt rather louder than the preceding murmuring.

    "Are we ready to enter the hall, then?"

    - - -

    The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Ruthenia was not yet fully in rhythm when it came to the logistics of its own Sejms, independent of Poland. So their new Grand Duke simply invited the realm's nobles (the Cossacks never wanted the word szlachta used again, one of a few minor growing pains of the new pairing) to the largest room in the Trakai island castle. Grand Duke Sigismund Rákóczi agreed with the Cossacks that the new union should not default to resembling the old. The Lithuanians did not object. And so Trakai again became the royal residence. It might indeed be well on its way to displacing Vilnius as capital. At least it was still in Lithuania proper, thought the traditionalists on the Lithuanian side.

    But some breaks from tradition were unexpected. The nobles most certainly not expect to enter the hall and find their grand duke sitting restlessly on his throne, bouncing a crossbow on his knee.

    "Sit, sit, friends. I have been studying the history of your principle of the equality of all men of noble rank. And of your notional veto, and of what good and bad might come of it. And then I have been studying how things unfold in the larger nations of Europe that lack this same principle of equality among nobles. France, for one! Portugal, for two! Maybe Turkey, for three! And I conclude these things can only work if they are paid for. I know some of you already agree."

    The Grand Duke's eyes glittered. The bouncing crossbow gently suggested that interruptions were inadvisable. Only some were already sitting by now. Those still standing either moved more slowly towards chairs, or remained still.

    "I have also been studying, yes, studying... the use of this field crossbow you see upon my lap just now. That I have the crossbow on my lap rather than a book of law or history may tell you which study is the more interesting."

    There was no longer anyone moving for the chairs.

    "Friends, I say to you that we are all equal as men. And yet, a Grand Duke has greater responsibility... grander responsibility. He must have greater means... grander means. You as the nobles of Lithuania and Ruthenia will tax your districts. You will keep two thirds of what you tax for your own districts and yourselves. You raise regiments and pay them from your funds. The remaining third you give to the crown. From that I raise more regiments and armies and see that none of your districts becomes Russian or Turkish or Swedish. And I invest for the realms."

    "The one-third among you whose taxes most enrich the crown shall be allowed to exercise their right to some form of veto. I will listen to these men, often. The two-thirds whose taxes least enrich the crown shall be aided to improve their revenues through such investments as the crown agrees are merited. Or sometimes not. Their actions will give me reasons. I will hear these other men, as merited."

    The silence that followed was long enough that those gathered began to look, somewhat sideways, at each other... while no one stopped facing the throne.

    "Is anything unclear? Is anything objectionable?"

    It took a few breaths, but Bohdan Khmelmytsky himself spoke. "We have not yet begun to collect such taxes. Who will you listen to today? Who will be entitled to any veto today?"

    "Dear Bohdan - anyone, of course! We are all equals as men, and in this Sejm we are all of equal standing."
    Several men sighed, as though in harmony. Perhaps solidarity.

    "Only..."
    The sighs were cut short. Sigismund whistled the melody to the Ballad of Jan Bilesky, a song only months old, but already familiar to all. He strummed his right hand across the crossbow, as though playing a lute.

    "Only there is the matter of what strength we wish the Grand Duchy to have. And what strength is sufficient for me to wish to remain as your Grand Duke. Therefore... for today, and only today, when we are gathered without taxes tallied, I will manage the veto differently. Should any man here call out his veto, I shall shoot him with this crossbow. After that, the veto wielder shall be dead, and because the rest of us are all equal as men, you shall perhaps arrest me for murder, and shall perhaps decide to remove me as Grand Duke. Or, perhaps... not? Hmm.... Well, if you do remove me, it will be for the best, as you will have shown me you have no intention of allowing necessary improvements to your Grand Duchy's governance. And I will want no part of leading it without such improvements."
     
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    16. Libau, Courland, 1646.
  • The Mapmaker of Mitau

    Jakob's capital was still Goldingen, as it had been for his father William before him. His uncle Friedrich's capital had been Mitau, mostly because he had started as the Duke of Semigallia only, and hadn't seen reason to relocate once William's exile put him in charge of Courland as well. Friedrich's widow had relocated to Dobele since her husband's death, a little West of Mitau on the way to Goldingen.

    But Jakob was spending more and more time at Libau. While all Courland's industries had a way of helping each other along, there was more excitement or novelty to seeing what new ideas emerged for these industries with the new Academy drawing in so many bright minds, even if many were only passing through. Glassworks that tried to keep up with the needs of ships' optics or land-based telescopes were more interesting glassworks than those turning out flat panes of glass for buildings, however well they made them.

    Other endeavours not rooted in local geography also shifted toward Libau now. One was cartography. And for the second day in a row, Jakob had come to the academy to discuss matters of cartography and exploration with one of his favourite collaborators - Tevel ben Elisha.

    Ben Elisha was sitting by a window, sipping a warm cider. He rose upon seeing his duke.

    "My lord. Welcome again to your academy. You are spoiling us to stay so long."
    "Tevel, it is simply that you are such fine company. I remember meeting you on the day you arrived in Semigallia. Even with weeks of road dust and misery, you were still a man of note." Jakob sat. A second warm cider was on the table within seconds. "You said you might have a request of me today, after you spoke with your new bride."
    "Indeed."
    Tevel had recently wed a woman from Polangen, from a Jewish merchant family of growing influence. Moving to Libau seemed an easy thing when it was closer to her family, and the place in Courland where cartography most mattered. "My lord, you nicknamed me your Mapmaker of Mitau, though I was never truly a mapmaker, and I did not live long in Mitau before your great changes in this country started drawing me further and further West. I seem to be your Letter-writer of Libau these days, corresponding with your agents and others to acquire new geographical knowledge and have it brought to Courland."
    "As you know, patience is not a virtue I have in abundance, Tevel. Speak your mind."
    "My lord, I..." he raised his mug for a sip, indexing and ordering his thoughts as quickly as possible. "Being in your service has brought so much to my life, so quickly. In Mitau, Goldingen, and now here. I wish again to serve you in a new place."
    Jakob did not interrupt, even to prompt Tevel to continue.
    "You have spoken of places for your duchess' third garden, and plantations, and trade with Gambia and Guinea. When you send ships to the Gambia and to to Captain Sellin's islands 'all in a straight line south by southwest,' I wish to travel there. I will serve as your diplomat, your coordinator of cartography, your trade agent, your head gardener or even your governor if you wished. But I would wish to serve there."
    A moment's pause betrayed Jakob's surprise. "Why?"
    "I have been corresponding more and more with Lisbon and Barcelona, my lord - there is no longer a hub of mapmaking in Mallorca as there was in my ancestors' time. How much do you know of conversos?"
    "Some. Little."
    "Portugal and Castile and the rest of Iberia either forced Jews and Muslims out or forced them to convert. Or simply killed them. Conversos are those who converted, or those who made it appear they'd converted until they got somewhere safer - like my ancestor there. At one point, Portugal had an excess of Jewish orphans, apparently mostly girls. The fate of their parents seems easily guessable and unfortunate. In the late 15th century, Portugal sailed these orphans to Africa in much the same way they are beginning to ship slaves from Africa today. They were forced to convert, and were brought to at least one or two of these islands."
    "And you wish to go, to... to find their great-grandchildren's great-grandchildren?"
    "Yes. There may be no Jewishness left to find in their descendants. But maybe, just as I have a heritage of maps going back to Iberia of the same epoch, maybe some child there hears a Portuguese pidgin version of a story one of those orphans might have heard in Iberia."
    "And if you were to find such a story being told there?"
    "Then I might hope to invite the teller of the story to come with me to make a garden for a duchess, and invite the child hearing the story to play in that garden."
    "Presumably, not as slaves."
    "No. The children of mixed European and local descent are already facilitators of trade for the Portuguese and their neighbours. A natural caste of merchants and middlemen. They would have immense value to you as you pursue your own trade in the area. In a way, to gather sufficient people of such a heritage and role to your cause would accelerate your Guinean trade by a generation."
    "Rather literally."
    "My lord, this little sliver of land between the Baltic and the Düna" - he tapped a map of Courland and Semigallia - "is becoming a force in part for the diversity of people you welcome here, and for how you have chosen to enable rather than restrict what they can do. If you mean to create similar growth in a little sliver of land between the Gambia and the Atlantic," he tapped another map, then placed a third one on top of it, "or between the Rio dos Camarões and the Rio do Volta... or is that da? - forgive my weak Portuguese. I am only learning - I think you will need similar freedom for those who most deliver or design that growth. Were I to serve you there, I would seek to reproduce what has worked so well here with a diversity and enterprise tuned to what I find there."
    "Your Portuguese is better than mine. It is not a language I've yet tried to learn. I know only that the 'a' with a tilde before an 'o' sounds like the French 'an' before a half-swallowed 'o' sound. I honestly don't know what sound you have to swallow when the tilde is over the 'o' though."
    "Your ambassador to Lisbon described so many of those sounds as tipsy noises half-passed through the nose. I haven't met the man, though, I've only read his letters."
    "Indeed. I wonder sometimes whether all your correspondence shows as much talent for espionage as for gathering maps, Tevel."
    "In which case you'll quite like the man I'm recommending as my successor."
    "I'll accept him on your recommendation before I even hear his name. Thank you. If I can send you to the straight-line islands and keep you in my service, I shall be glad to do it. I accept your proposal, Tevel ben Elisha. You will still have to keep the craft of Couronian map-gathering alive on your island, though. You're forever the Mapmaker of Mitau."
    "I'll be the Fool of Fernão do Po, with his fool wife at his side."
    "I'm afraid that neither rolls of the tongue nor does you enough credit. If Portugal is kind enough to let us set up a colony on an island they've abandoned, we can be kind enough to not call the place Fernando Po like all those Spanish maps do. But when you make me a map in German, you can write it in a way we can pronounce."

    It was the Duke's turn to tap his finger on the map.

    "I name you Fürst of Fernau - spell that with a 'u' if you please. Go find your conversos great-grandchildren's great-grandchildren, make a garden with them, and teach them to either make maps in that garden, or else go find things to draw on those maps."
     
    17. The Baltic, Copenhagen, the North Sea, Edinburgh, the Atlantic, 1647
  • The Three Governors Fleet - part one

    "The Gambia was a magnet for men of all nations, but the enterprise and the pertinacity shown by the head of a small Baltic State in competing with the great nations, gains our admiration for James, Duke of Courland, even though his motives do not commend themselves to us."
    - Lady Southorn

    "There are rather a lot of us, aren't there?" Tevel was standing on the deck of the Black Crayfish, next to its captain, Fenrich, who the first Kur promoted to that rank in the decade since Jakob had encouraged the Kurs to sail again, rather than forbid it like his predecessors. They spoke in German.

    "Ja. Libau is home. Every time I come home, home is bigger. More this time with this Academy. So many people from so many places now."
    Then Fenrich noticed Tevel was not looking at the town, but the ships.
    "Ah. So. Ships. Ja. When we sailed to Tobago, it was four ships arriving, but only two leaving Courland at once. Two from Windau met the other two in the Netherlands. Then Canaries, then crossing."

    "Just that, Kapitan. I don't think Courland has ever seen so many big ships together at once. I don't think I have, either. I've spent so much time at inland places, or river places."

    "I pray you do not get sea-sick, sir."

    Eight ships, five big and three small, set sail from Libau to Visby. Tevel did not get sea-sick.

    - - -

    The stop at Visby was because Denmark was short on ships. The treaty of Brömsebro had left them with Götland and Ösel, but at the cost of too great a share of the Danish Navy. Dominium Maris Baltici remained a thing on paper, if that paper was old enough and kept far enough from both shore and reality. Reality was that Sweden controlled most Baltic shores, Denmark controlled the most noteworthy Baltic islands, and neutral Courland's ships connected everyone's ports while navies were being built up again.

    The Three Governors fleet sold a few goods, mostly foodstuffs. Courland, like Poland and Lithuania, was a place of food surplus. Unlike Poland and Lithuania, its surplus wasn't needed to recover from recent conflict.
    It bought others, none of special significance. It took on mail and passengers for the Danish capital.

    Eight ships, five big and three small, set sail from Visby to Copenhagen. Tevel did not get sea-sick.

    - - -

    Courland's first colonial and trade ships suffered trouble, from poor planning. Sailors handled the sailing, and were busy. Soldiers and others were passengers, and they became restless. The restlessness of soldiers was trouble, for morale, for more than just morale. Tevel, his fellow governors, and the ships' captains had resolved to ensure that those without sailing responsibilities should still have other responsibilities. Tevel made sure the dizzying array of plants (some from the Baltic, some from elsewhere in Europe, some that came from warmer and more distant places and had spent Courland winters indoors) were distributed evenly among all the ships. Their care was everyone's responsibility, even if that spread the responsibility too thinly to keep everyone busy for long. A regular moment's business was enough to reset some kinds of idleness.

    Tevel also set up lessons for the colonists - mostly, they were learning languages. Portuguese was new to nearly everyone, and was emphasized for those bound for Fernau. Those from Courland also learned a little Dutch or English. A couple Courland natives got in the spirit and tried to informally teach some some words of Latvian to Dutch or German colonists. Anyone who couldn't read had lessons in letters. For this, there was an emphasis on German.

    Beyond language, there were basic lessons in astronomy, navigation, and the simplest mathematics used for each. Tevel himself taught map-reading, map-making, and how to gather and record information useful to mapmakers.

    When they stopped at Copenhagen, Tevel delivered diplomatic letters, met briefly with ministers. The court seemed a place of dreams and nervousness, just beginning to recover its sense of adventure after losing Halland, Jämtland and Härjedalen to Sweden after the Torstenson War. The Three Governors Fleet picked up some soldiers and adventurers bound for the Gold Coast.

    Eight ships, five big and three small, set sail from Copenhagen to Edinburgh. Tevel did not get sea-sick.

    - - -

    Years of civil war emphasized the greyness of Edinburgh. Overcast weather played its part, too. The Three Governors fleet docked at Leith, next to another ship flying Courland's black crayfish on a raspberry red field. As with prior stops, some minor trade was conducted at the port. Sailors and colonists alike took turns spending time ashore while a small diplomatic party went to Edinburgh Castle, guided by the Scottish captain of that waiting Couronian vessel, Clement Keir.

    They chose to walk the three miles rather than take a carriage. A generally uphill walk might be tiring, but it was still welcome after so much sailing.

    "So, milords, do ye ken how long this diplomatic chatter is meant to take?"
    "You tell us, captain. How long will your crew need to be ready to sail south?"
    "Och, we'll manage in two days, for certain. But I was more wondering whether ye be here more for courtesies, or requests that might require waiting on answers."
    "Courland remains vassal to Poland, neutral to all, trading partner to all, captain."

    They were received and told to expect a royal audience the next morning. After a short rest and a meal, Tevel, Clem, and Tevel's wife Liba spent the rest of the day's light hiking up Arthur's Seat, then down again. The first walk from Leith, with the rest of the party, made each appreciate the other's perspective. This second one saw them drop formalities and become better friends.

    "How is Scotland faring during all this civil war?"
    "Charlie's sour at half his top advisors being hanged for treason in England, but here he isna faring too poorly. He gave up on forcing a more-or-less English prayer book on the Kirk - that's Scots for church, milady, the church, not a church. So instead of a more English Church of Scotland, now he's cheering for a more Scottish Kirk for England. There are enough presbyterian Scots here that having a Scottish state religion dinnae trouble us much. So, those you'd think might most oppose him have been won over. And those who are less presbyterian but dinnae care for England cheer for any wee thing that asserts Scotland afore England here."
    "Can Scotland have any hope of winning? Or should I say can Charles have any hope of winning?"
    "Scotland feels its won already, by bringing its King home and having him rule rather better now that he's here. Charles fights England, Tevel. Scotland, less so. Charles still holds much of the Severn lands, and between that and Liverpool his loyalists do a fair job of keeping the Irish Sea under control. Wales seems tae be waiting for a victor rather than participating for either side. South of the Tees, England's got an equal stranglehold on shipping to North Sea ports. On land, perhaps two thirds of the rest is firmly in English hands, and one third might be subject to change. But I willna pretend to remember inland details as well as coast details."
    "A true man of the sea, our Clem." Clem shrugged and smiled. They all chuckled.

    From Arthur's seat they looked North toward Leith, West toward Edinburgh Castle, and South toward uncertainty.

    The next day's audience with the King went well. Courland agreed to supply more timber and powder to Edinburgh. Scotland agreed to pay a rather low price for it. And as King of Scotland and titular King of England, Charles happily offered customs-free trade to all Courland ships at his colonial ports, accepted customs-free trade for Scottish ships at all present and future Couronian ports for the next 25 years, and supported Jakob's claims to not only Tobago, the Gambia river trade, Saint Helena and Fernau, but also to Trinidad, Noronha, and "any other lands or islands along a line passing through Fernau and Saint Helena, provided they welcome Scottish trade without duty and are claimed without war against friends of Scotland." The latter was the better part of Courland's recompense for the badly needed timber.

    After a second night's rest (and another hike up Arthur's Seat, this one with more sunshine), the party headed back to Leith, minus one diplomat who stayed behind.

    One small Couronian ship sailed for Oslo, then home, carrying sugar, seedlings from North America, preserves of exotic fruit, and more, all transferred from Clem's ship. Some other seedlings from the Caribbean and South America stayed on board to test the soils of Gambia and Guinea.

    Eight ships, six big and two small, set sail from Edinburgh to Libson. The Irish Sea and North Atlantic were kind. Tevel did not get sea-sick.
     
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