Chapter 33: Casus Belli
After the 1622 siege of Macau and the subsequent Ming-Dutch conflict over the Penghu Islands, the Spanish grew concerned over their access to Ming trade via the Portuguese in Macau and the Japanese in Sakai and Nagasaki. The decline of Portuguese power in Asia amidst the Dutch-Portuguese war, which saw the Dutch increasingly gain the upper hand, only added to Spain’s anxieties in the region. In 1625, Fernando de Silva, interim governor-general of the Philippines, proposed establishing a Spanish presence in southern Bireitou to King Philip III, as that part of the island lay outside Japanese control and would be close to both Macau and the Ming coast, where the Spanish could expect exchanges with Chinese smugglers and Japanese merchants. He would gain approval a few months later. On May 11th, 1626, an expedition under Sergeant Major Antonio Carreno de Valdes landed on the southwestern coast and would subsequently begin construction on the fortress of San Salvador.
It didn’t take long before news of San Salvador reached Iriebashi and Azuchi, and reactions ranged from shock and alarm to even calls for war. Among the war hawks were Oda Tadataka, the pro-Dutch Shimazu Nagahisa, and the heir Nobutomo himself, although they were a vocal minority who would be restrained by the chancellor, his uncle Kitabatake Nobuoki, and naval magistrate Kuki Moritaka, who were fearful of Spanish-Portuguese military power. Nevertheless, there was unanimity in taking some sort of action against the Spanish for violating Japan’s territorial claims and influence on the island. After much discussion, Spanish trading rights and privileges in the realm were suspended and talks with the Dutch began on a possible defensive alliance. Back in Bireitou, Oda Tadahide would send his cousin Norishige (織田則重) [1] south with a force of a few hundred to establish an inland castle, later known as Momoyama Castle (桃山城) to expand Japanese power and influence into the southern part of the island and monitor Spanish activities on Bireitou. Reports on progress of Fort San Salvador’s construction from spies flowed from Momoyama to Iriebashi and then to Azuchi. In Iriebashi itself, the naval presence was increased to intercept any Spanish ships in the area.
Modern-day replica model of Fort San Salvador
In early 1627, Manila sent 2 ships to Nagasaki in an attempt to repair relations and resume trade relations with Azuchi but were refused landing and forced to leave. On their way back, one of them was intercepted by the Japanese warship Iwakura-maru (岩倉丸), its crew detained, questioned, and escorted to Iriebashi under suspicions of an impending Spanish attack on Japanese holdings in southern Bireitou. This incident would see war nearly break out as San Salvador went on high alert, and it was only through Tadataka’s swift release of the Spanish ship that conflict was averted. A few months later, Ikeda Masatora and ex-Philippines governor Fernando de Silva met in Iriebashi where they signed a series of agreements that resolved matters: in return for Azuchi recognition of San Salvador and restitution over the Spanish ship detainment, Spanish trade in Japan would be restricted to Nagasaki and Iriebashi and further expansion on the island would be forbidden, with other European powers including the Dutch also implicitly banned from building outposts on Bireitou.
The 1627 Bireitou agreements, however, failed to contain suspicions and rebuild trust between Manila and Azuchi. De Tabora, now fully aware of Japan’s naval and land-based military strength, would request and receive reinforcements from New Spain as he also began to train more Filipinos as auxiliary troops in preparations of a feared Japanese invasion. Similarly, Tadataka incorporated more Han Chinese settlers and indigenous vassals as infantry equipped with arquebusiers, bows, and long spears to resist a potential Spanish invasion. Spain would also begin to involve itself in the internal affairs of Siam as they sent advisors to support the young king Athittayawong, reduce Japanese political and economic influence in the kingdom, and make up for lost revenue from Japan’s new trade restrictions.
Portrait of the teenage Siamese king Athittayawong, a puppet of anti-Japanese Siamese nobles and Spanish advisors
Nevertheless, a pro-peace agenda was still advocated by Azuchi against the wishes of a hawkish minority. However, fate would induce changes as certain key figures would pass away. In 1629, Naritoshi, formerly Nobunaga’s favorite page from decades past, died at the age of 64. Then in 1630, Kitabatake Nobuoki’s passing at 72 would be followed by the death of the chancellor Nobunori himself. With his passing came the ascendance of a very different type of chancellor as Oda Nobutomo, aged 29, was made the new daijo-daijin.
Although hawkish, Nobutomo was nevertheless a pragmatist who sought to build towards a long-term defensive alliance with the Dutch, which was in the works, and court diplomatic goodwill among smaller nations in Southeast Asia to counterbalance Spanish expansionary schemes in the region while also emphasizing naval readiness in case of conflict. That conflict would be triggered by an Oda spy living in Dilao for years who had obtained copies of correspondence between Manila and Madrid in 1630 and snuck onto a ship headed to Japan early the next year. In these letters to the Spanish king, de Tabora elaborated on ideas to squeeze Japan out of Southeast Asia economically and diplomatically and eventually take all of Bireitou, including a plan to influence Kirishitan leaders as well as the Omura and Arima clans to betray the Oda, describing Japan as a direct threat that needed to be tamed to allow Spanish expansion in the region to proceed unimpeded. He even referred to earlier writings on Oda Nobuhide the Younger's visit to Manila in 1597, noting how compared to back then when Japan was already a potential threat that the realm had progressed and expanded significantly.
Upon reading the translated correspondence, Nobutomo knew something needed to be done. He convened a secret meeting of the Sangi-shu without haste and with some discussion determined on a course of action. In April 1631, Oda Tadataka returned to Bireitou in what seemed like a customary trip but quickly gathered all of his major vassals to deliver a simple message: take San Salvador from the Spanish.
With Japanese messengers also sailing to the Dutch, the English, and the Maguindanao sultanate, the stage was set for the Iberian-Japanese War.
Ceremonial portrait of Oda Nobutomo
Members of the Sangi-shu 1601-1630
Orange-Oda clan members
Blue-Nobility
Bold-Incumbent
Oda vassals:
Mori Nagayoshi (森長可): 1586-1605
Maeda Geni (前田玄以): 1599-1602
Sakuma Morimasa (佐久間盛政): 1600-1619
Horio Yoshiharu (堀尾吉晴) 1601-1611
Murai Sadanari (村井貞成): 1601-1614
Horiuchi Ujiyoshi (堀内氏善): 1602-1615
Takigawa Kazutada (滝川一忠): 1605-1615
Hashiba Hidetsugu (羽柴秀次): 1611-1623
Nagaoka Tadaoki (長岡忠興): 1614-
Shibata Katsumasa (柴田勝政) 1615-1616
Kawajiri Shigeyuki (河尻鎮行) 1615-1627
Sassa Katsuyuki (佐々勝之): 1616-
Mori Naritoshi (森成利): 1619-1629
Kuki Moritaka (九鬼守隆): 1623-
Inaba Michikatsu (稲葉通勝): 1627-
Niwa Nagashige (丹羽長重): 1629-
Tozama daimyo:
Shimazu Yoshihisa (島津義久): 1587-1602
Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康): 1584-1616
Miyoshi Nobutaka (三好信孝): 1585-1621
Mōri Terumoto (毛利輝元): 1584-1625
Date Masamune (伊達政宗): 1599-
Shimazu Nagahisa (島津長久): 1602-
Nagao Kagehiro (長尾景広): 1616-1630 [2]
Satake Yoshinobu (佐竹義宣): 1621-
Ukita Nobuie (宇喜多信家): 1625-
Other:
Kajuuji Harutoyo (勧修寺晴豊): 1584-1603
Kitabatake Nobuoki (北畠信意): 1584-1630 [2]
Oda Nobukane (織田信包): 1593-1614
Oda Nobunori (織田信則): 1599-1609
Hirohashi Kanekatsu (広橋兼勝): 1603-1623
Oda Nagamasu (織田長益): 1614-1622
Oda Nobutomo (織田信朝): 1619-1630 [3]
Oda Tadataka (織田忠高): 1620-
Oda Toshimasa (織田利昌): 1620-
Sanjonishi Saneeda (三条西実条): 1623-
Kyoto Shoshidai:
Asano Nagamasa (浅野長政): 1592-1602
Kyogoku Takatsugu (京極高次): 1602-1609
Sugaya Nobuyori (菅屋信頼): 1609-1616
Nagaoka Okimoto (長岡興元): 1616-1619
Hijikata Okiuji (土方意氏): 1619-
Azuchi bugyo (magistrates):
Mori Naritoshi (森成利): 1592-1605
Ogasawara Hidemasa (小笠原秀政): 1605-1615
Sato Tsugunari (佐藤継成): 1615-1619
Ban Yasutomo (塙安友): 1619-1629
Sugaya Nobuyori (菅屋勝頼): 1629-
Oometsu-shoku (inspector general):
Asano Nagamasa (浅野長政): 1602-1607
Saito Yoshioki (斎藤義興): 1607-1619
Hori Chikayoshi (堀親良): 1619-
Kamakura Tandai:
Oda Toshimasa (織田利昌): 1596-
Bireitou governors:
Oda Nobutaka (織田信高): 1597-1603
Oda Tadataka (織田忠高): 1603-
[1]: Norishige is Oda Nobutaka’s son.
[2]: Became daijo-daijin in 1630
[3]: Died in 1630